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Author: 


Thompson,  Eliza  Bailey 


Title: 

Silk 


Place: 


New  York 

Date: 

1922 


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COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
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MASTER    NEGATIVE    # 


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T372 


Thompson,  Eliza  Bailey,  18G4- 

...  Silk,  l)y  Eliza  B.  Thompson  ...     New  York,  The 
Koiiald  press  company,  1922. 

xvili.  232  p.     front.,  plates,  dia^rs.     19-".     ( Nf erchandise  manual  series) 
"Books  for  reference":  p.  203-204. 


1.  Silk. 

T,il»rary  of  Congress 
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MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


SILK 


BY 

ELIZA  B.  THOMPSON 

Instructor  in  Salesmanship,  High  School.  New  Haven.  Conn.; 

A°'?*®lJ^    *°'®  Teacher,  Stem  Brothers,  New  York  City,  and 

A.  I.  Namm  &  Son,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Instructor  of  Textile 

Merchandise  Courses,  New  York  University 


NEW  YORK 

THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


SILK 


BY 


ELIZA  B.  THOMPSON 

Instructor  in  Salesnianship,  High  School,  New  Haven.  Conn.; 

A  T®xl^  Store  Teacher,  Stem  Brothers,  New  York  City,  and 

A.  1.  Namm  &  Son,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Instructor  of  Textila 

Merchandise  Courses,  New  York  University 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


3^ 


i:^ 


p-' 


^ 


\A^\JU>- 


Copyright,  1918,  by 
The  Ronald  Press  Company 


Copyright,  1922,  by 
The  Ronald  Press  Company 
All  rights  reserved 


tE^fiisi  benefit  ii  Sebtcateb 

to  Mrs.  H«iry  Ollesheimer,  Miss 
Virginia  Potter,  and  Miss  Anne 
Morgan,  who  desiring  to  give 
greater  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment to  commercial  employees  and 
believing  that  all  business  efficiency 
must  rest  upon  a  solid  foundation 
of  training  and  education  gave 
years  of  enthusiastic  service  to  the 
testing  of  this  belief. 


\ 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 

EDITOR  OF   SERIES 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Formerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Courses,  New  York 

Umversjty ;  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise  Courses 

for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;   Educational  Director, 

Department  Store  Education  Association 

CONSULTING  EDITOR 

LEE   GALLOWAY,   Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Head  of  Department 
of  Management,  and  formerly  Director  of  Training  School 
for  Teachers  of  Retail  Selling,  New  York  University  ; 
formerly    Educational    Director,  the   National   Commercial 

Gas  Association 


As  "Department  Store  Merchandise  Manuals**  these 
books  were  originally  written  for  salespeople  and  were 
designed  to  give  them  reliable  information  concerning 
the  sources  and  manufacturing  processes  of  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  handle.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  deal  with  scientific  or  historical  material  it  was 
treated  as  simply  and  concretely  as  possible  and  the 
point  of  view  taken  was  that  of  business  rather  than 
that  of  the  school  or  laboratory.  In  this  form  they 
have  proved  their  practical  value  not  only  to  the  de- 
partment store  salesperson  but  in  the  specialty  shop. 
It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  material  has 
a  wider  scope  than  that  of  sales  manuals  alone. 

As  reference  books,  librarians  will  find  the  short, 
clear  statements  and  full  indexes  invaluable. 

As  an  encyclopaedia  of  merchandise  the  series  con- 
tains scientific  information  in  a  simple,  compact  form 
which  makes  it  available  for  children  and  others  to 
whom  the  subjects  treated  are  unfamiliar. 

As  textbooks  they  are  adapted  for  use  in  commercial 
schools,  high  schools,  night  schools,  settlement  classes, 
and  by  teachers  of  household  arts  and  domestic  science. 


VI 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


As  source  books  for  practical  story-telling,  kinder- 
gartners,  primary  and  vacation  school  teachers  will 
find  in  them  an  abundance  of  interesting  material  for 
short  "true"  stories  on  the  various  industries  and  crafts, 
the  manufacture  of  household  articles,  such  as  pins 
and  needles,  as  well  as  the  making  of  pottery, 
glass,  and  steel.  These  manuals  contain  just  the 
material  often  hunted  for  in  vain  by  teachers  and 
librarians. 

As  household  helps  and  shopping  guides  the  young 
housekeeper  will  find  the  manuals  her  best  friends  be- 
cause they  not  only  describe  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses but  tell  her  how  to  distinguish  well-made  articles 
of  good  materials  from  the  inferior  and  badly  made. 
They  also  tell  her  how  to  care  for  the  clothing  or 
household  goods  which  she  has  bought. 

For  salespeople  and  storekeepers  they  supply  the 
general  and  specific  information  about  their  merchan- 
dise which  is  indispensable  to  efficiency,  yet  very 
hard  to  gather  from  the  scattered  sources  upon  which 
they  now  depend. 

These  changes  should  enlarge  the  usefulness  of  the 
manuals  without  losing  any  of  their  specific  value  in 
the  field  of  salesmanship. 

The  subjects  of  color  and  design  are  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  treatment  of  many  kinds  of  merchan- 
dise.    To  avoid  any  confusion  arising  from  varied 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


vu 


statements  of  principles  the  editor  has  put  the  material 
into  a  standardized  form  approved  by  the  authors  of 
the  manuals  in  which  these  chapters  appear. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation  to  the 
manufacturers  and  experts  who  have  given  us  such 
valuable  counsel  and  cordial  co-operation. 

Beulah  Elfreth  Kennard. 


V 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

The  salespeople  in  the  Silk  Department  should  know  the 
main  facts  about  the  production  and  manufacture  of  silk, 
the  making  of  pile  fabrics,  and  the  various  finishing  pro- 
cesses. But  while  this  knowledge  is  of  primary  im- 
portance to  those  who  sell  merchandise  it  is  also  valuable 
to  the  consumer.  The  manual  is  therefore  planned  so  that 
it  may  be  of  use  to  students  of  household  arts  and  home 
economics  both  in  the  schools  and  in  the  home. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  the  editor  of  the  series  for  the 
chapters  on  the  principles  of  color  and  ornament  and  de- 
sign ;  to  Cheney  Brothers  for  the  valuable  glossaries  in  the 
Appendix  and  also  for  reading  the  manuscript ;  to  Mr.  E. 
M.  Barlow,  Stehli  Silk  Corporation,  for  reviewing  certain 
chapters;  and  to  Mr.  Albert  Blum,  United  Piece  Dye 
Works  for  valuable  information  on  dyeing. 

For  illustrations  thanks  are  due  to  Belding  Bros.  &  Co., 
Mrs.  Ellen  McGowan  (author  of  "Textiles"),  to  the 
Macmillan  Co.,  and  to  Robert  M.  McBride  &  Co. 

Eliza  B.  Thompson. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I     The  Silk  Department 


Description  of  Department 

Location 

Arrangement 

The  Silk  Yard  Goods  Department 

Other  Departments  in  which  Silk  Fabrics  are  Sold 

II    Sources  and  Cultivation  of  Silk  .     . 

Branches  of  the  Silk  Industry 

Source  of  Silk 

The  Silkworm 

Life  of  the  Silkworm 

Silkworm  Diseases 

Spinning  and  Making  the  Cocoon 

Whole  Cocoons 

Pierced  Cocoons 

Reeling  the  Silk  from  the  Cocoon 

The  Process  of  Reeling 

Wild  Silk 


page 
I 


VUl 


III    Raw  Silk  and  Spun  Silk 

Raw  Silk 

Conditioning 

Silk  Throwing 

Sorting 

Soaking 

Drying 

Winding 

Doubling  and  Twisting 

Stretching 

Spun  Silk 

Sources  of  Spun  Silk 

ix 


14 


X 

CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Processes  in  the  Preparation  of  Spun  Silk 

Removal  of  the  Gum  from  Waste  Silk 

Beating  and  Opening 

Combing 

Inspecting 

The  Spinning  Process  —  Drawing  and  Doubling 

Twisting  and  Winding 

Gassing  or  Singeing 

Uses  of  Raw  and  Spun  Silk 

IV    Weaving 25 

Woven  Silk 

Warp  and  Weft 

Antiquity  of  Weaving 

Raw  Material  Used  in  Ancient  Times 

Origin  of  the  Loom 

Hand-Looms 

Parts  of  the  Hand-Loom 

Power- Looms 

Warping  or  Placing  Silk  Upon  the  Loom 

Beaming  Off 

Movements  of  the  Loom 


V    Silk  Weaves 35 

Varieties  of  Weaves 

Plain  Weave 

Rib  Weaves 

Twill  Weave 

Satin  Weave 

Gauze  or  Leno  Weave 

Double-Cloth  Weaves 

Pile  Weave 

The  Process  of  Pattern -Weaving 

Antiquity  of  Pattern-Weaving 

The  Draw-Loom 

Improvements  upon  the  Draw-Loom 

Jacquard 

The  Jacquard  Loom 

Mechanism  of  the  Loom 

The  Cards 

Varieties  of  the  Jacquard  Loom 

Figured  Velvets 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

VI    Dyeing  Silk         

Classes  of  Dyed  Silk 
Yarn-Dyeing  Processes 
Boilmg-Off.  Scouring,  or  Stripping 
Process  of  Boiling  Off 
Weighting  of  Silk 
Weighting  Materials 
Process  of  Weighting  with  Tin 
Results.of  Weighting 

Classification  of  Dyes 

Modern  Dye  Stuffs 

Mordants 

Yarn-Dyeing 

Stretching 

Black  Silk 

Piece -Dyeing 

Printing 

Machine  Printing 

Ways  of  Printing 

Antiqpity  of  Vegetable  and  Animal  Dyes 

Art  of  Using  Dyes  Regained  in  Europe 

Growth  of  Industry  in  France 

Decrease  in  Cost  of  Dyes 

American  Dyes 

Mineral  Dyes 

Coal  Tar  Dyes  (Aniline  Dyes) 

Growth  of  the  Industry 

VII    Finishing  Processes 

Variety  of  Processes  Required 

Lalendering 

Stiffening 

Breaking 

Tentering 

Gassing 

Moire  Finish 

Shower-Proofing 

Permanency  of  Finishes 

VIII    Artificial  or  Fiber  Silk 

Reason  for  Making  Artificial  Silk 
Difference  Between  Real  and  Artificial  Silk 


PAGE 
52 


67 


72 


Xll 
CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Kinds  of  Artificial  Silk 

Manufacture 

History 

Characteristics 

Uses 

Names  of  Materials 

Laundering 

Vegetable  Silk 

IX    Mixtures,    Imitations,    Adulterations, 

AND  Tests  for  Silk 80 

Mixtures — Silk  and  Wool 
Mixtures^Silk  and  Cotton 
Imitations 
Adulterations 
^         Characteristics  of  Silk 
Burning  Tests 
Microscopic  Tests 
Chemical  Tests 
Other  Miscellaneous  Tests 
Weaving  Tests 
Tests  for  "Feel" 

X    Principles  of  Color 89 

Importance  of  a  Knowledge  of  Color  to  the  Sales- 
person 
Combinations  of  Colors 
The  Spectrum 
Standard  Colors 
Primary  Colors 
Secondary  Colors 
Characteristics  of  Primary  Colors 
Characteristics  of  Secondary  Colors 
Luminous  and  Somber  Colors 
Broken  Colors 

Absorption  and  Reflection  of  Color 
Complementary  Colors 
Properties  of  Color 
Hues 
Values 
Color  Scales 
Intensity 

Color  Harmonies 
Color  Under  Artificial  Light 


CONTENTS  • 

CHAPTER 

XI    Color  in  the  Silk  Department 


xm 

PAGE 

103 


Necessity  for  Knowledge  of  the  Laws  of  Color 
Harmony 

Colors  Best  Suited  to  Different  Types  of  Women 

1  he  Fashionable  Color 

Conditions  Affecting  Color 

Effect  of  Various  Lights  on  Colors 

Effect  of  the  Material  on  Color 

Colors  for  Household  Decoration 

Suggestions  for  Color  Schemes 

XII    The  Principles  of  Ornament  and  De- 
sign  .      .   • „o 

Definition  of  Design 
Kinds  of  Designs 
Pattern  Design 
Sources  of  Pattern  Design 
Motives  of  Design 
Material  of  Pattern  Design 
Planning  a  Pattern 
Value  of  Line  in  Patterns 
Forms  and  Spaces 


XIII    Designs  for  Silk 


Varieties  of  Design 

Elements  of  Design 

Qasses  of  Patterns 

Rectangular 

Step-repeat 

Drop- repeat 

Turn-over 

Turn-around 

Process  of  Designing 

Dress  Goods  Patterns 

Suitable  Patterns  for  Dress  Goods 

Drapery  Silks 

Values  of  Designs  That  "Take" 

History  of  Designs  for  Silk 

Italian  Art 

French  Skill 

Jacquard  Weaves 


119 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XIV    Silk  Yard  Goods 

Classification 

Armure 

Batiste 

Bolting  Cloth 

Brocade 

Broche 

Cachemire  de  Soie 

Changeable  Silk 

Charmeuse 

Chiffon 

Chiffon  Taffeta 

China  Silk 

Chine  Silks 

Qoth  of  Gold 

Q-epe 

Crepe  Charmeuse 

Crepe  de  Chine 

Crepe  Meteor 

Damask 

Dresden 

Eolienne 

Epingle 

Faille 

Faille  Frangaise 

Foulard 

Gauze 

Georgette  Crepe 

Glace 

Grenadine 

Gros  de  Londres 

Grosgrain 

India  Silk 
Jacquard  Silks 
Japanese  Silk 
Jersey  Cloth 
Kikai 

Liberty  Satin 
Louisine 
Marquisette 
Matelasse 
Merveilleux 


PAGE 

127 


CHAPTER 


XV 
PAGE 


CONTENTS 


Messaline 

Moire 

Moire  Antique 

Mousseline  de  Soie 

Organdie 

Ottoman 

Peau  de  Cygne 

Peau  de  Soie 

Pekin  Stripe 

Plush 

Pongee 

Poplin 

Rep 

Satin 

Shantung 

Shot  Silks 

Silk  Serge 

Surah 

Taffeta 

Tulle 

Tussah,  Tussur,  or  Tussore 

Velour 

Velvet 

Voile  * 

Novelty  Silks 

XV    The  Velvet  Department 146 

Varieties  of  Velvets 

Plush 

Qualities  of  Velvets 

History 

Centers  of  Industry 

XVI    The  Ribbon  Department    .....  150 

Varieties  of  Ribbons 

Materials 

Weaving 

Finishing,  Dyeing,  and  Printing 

Designs 

Qualities  and  Lines 

Uses 

Avoiding  Remnants 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CONTENTS 


xvii 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


Importance  of  Color 
History 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


XVII    The  Umbrella  and  Parasol  Department  159 

Materials  Used  in  Umbrellas  and  Parasols 

Divisions  of  Stock 

Frames  of  Women's  Umbrellas 

Covers 

Sticks  and  Handles 

Manufacturing 

Folding  Umbrellas 

Parasols 

Men's  Umbrellas 

Frames  of  Men's  Umbrellas 

Covers  of  Men's  Umbrellas 

Sticks  and  Handles  of  Men's  Umbrellas 

Children's  Umbrellas 

Suggestions  as  to  Care  of  Umbrellas 

History 

XVIII    The  History  of  Silk 170 

Discovery  in  China 

Silk  Culture  in  Japan 

Chinese  Silks 

Japanese  Silk 

Silk  in  India 

Silk  Production  in  Europe 

Early  Attempts  in  the  United  States 

Centers  of  Raw  Silk  Production 

European  Centers  of  Silk  Manufacture 

Manufacture  of  Silk  in  Great  Britain 

Liberty  Silks 

The  Manufacture  of  Silk  in  the  United  States 

XIX    Suggestions  to   Salespeople  and   Pur- 
chasers    181 

Arrangement  and  Display 

Backgrounds 

Variety  in  Arrangement 

The  Information  Needed  by  the  Salesperson 

How  Much  Material  to  Sell  to  a  Customer 

Quality  and  Values 


Reasons  Why  Silk  Is  More  Expensive  Than 
Other  Textile  Materials 

Knowledge  of  Manufacture 

Values  of  Different  Kinds  of.  Silk 

Matching  Samples 

Effect  of  Natural  and  Artificial  Light  on  Match- 
ing Colors 

Effect  of  Surface  of  Fabric  on  Matching  Colors 

Effect  of  Dyes  in  Matching  Colors 

Effect  of  Adjacent  Colors 

Tone  of  Color 

Accurate  Measurement 

Laundering  and  Care  of  Silk 

Laundering  of  Ribbons 

Cleaning  and  Steaming  Velvet 

XX    Classification  of  the  Stock  of  a  Ty- 
pical Silk  Department 194 

XXI    Classification  of  the  Stock  of  a  Ty- 
pical Ribbon  Department    ....  200 

Appendix 203 

Books  for  Reference 

Leading  Silk  Manufacturers  in  the  United  States 
Glossary  of  Terms  Used  in  the  Silk  Industry 
Names  Descriptive  of  Characteristics  of  Fabrics 

Index 225 


III 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


KcufE^^^^""^  Leaves  and  Feeding  Silkworms    .     .  Frontispiece 

1.  Life-size  Silkworm  Ready  for  Molting *'^,  '**^5 

2.  Silkworm  Beginning  Cocoon g 

3.  Moth  Escaping  from  Cocoon 5 

4.  Reeling  Silk  into  Skeins 12 

5.  The    Warping    Room      .     , 32 

6.  Workers  Passing  a  Single  Warp  Thread  Through  the 

Heddle  Eye  of  the  Harness 36 

7.  A  Weaver  at  Work ^ 

8.  Detail  of  Jacquard  Loom (on  page)    48 

9.  Dyeing    Silk ^ 

10.  Diagrani    Indicating    Primary    and    Secondary    Colors 

with  Their  Hues,  Tints,  and  Contrasts    .     (on  page)    98 

11.  Arrangement  of  Rectangular  and  Drop- Repeat  Patterns 

(on  page)  121 

12.  Umbrella    Fittings jfy 

13.  Raw  Silk  Bundled  and  Baled 178 


xvui 


SILK 


Chapter  I 
THE  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

Description  of  Department 

In  all  modem  stores  the  Silk  Department  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  important.  It  is  a  very  exten- 
sive department  including  portions  of  the  stock  in 
many  other  sections  of  the  store. 

Silk  is  a  staple  fabric  and  is  used  in  making  many 
articles  in  the  ready-to-wear  and  other  departments, 
which  are  listed  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

Location 

The  location  and  arrangement  of  the  silk  yard  goods 
department  are  of  primary  importance.  In  nearly  all 
stores  the  silks  are  wisely  placed  on  counters  under 
the  windows  where  the  light  is  good.  The  evening 
silks  are  in  a  special  section  lighted  by  electricity. 
These  precautions  are  really  necessary,  as  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  match  fabrics  for  daytime  wear  by  arti- 
ficial light,  or  for  evening  wear  by  daylight.     Some- 


2  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

times  the  Silk  Department  is  moved  to  the  second  floor 
to  secure  better  light  and  more  space. 

Arrangement 

Next  to  a  favorable  location,  a  pleasing  arrange- 
ment of  the  silks  is  the  chief  consideration.  The  sales- 
people in  the  department  are  usually  experienced  and 
capable,  and  the  display  rarely  fails  to  be  tempting  in 
its  beauty,  color,  and  variety. 

The  Silk  Yard  Goods  Department 

In  most  large  stores  the  Silk  Department  proper  is 
divided  into  sections.  The  plan  differs  in  various 
places,  but  the  typical  arrangement  is  somewhat  as 
follows : 

Plain  Silks  (either  in  colors  and  white  or  with 

white  silks  in  separate  section) 
White  Silks 
Black  Silks 
Novelty  Silks 
Foulard  and  Wash  Silks 
Evening  Silks 
Pongee  Silks 
Velvets 
Chiffons 

In  these  different  sections  both  foreign  and  domestic 
silks  are  usually  sold.  They  are  classified  as  to  color 
and  prices. 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

Other  Departments  in  which  Silk  Fabrics  are  Sold 

Besides  the  department  where  only  silk  yard  goods 
are  sold,  materials  made  of  silk  are  found  in  many  of 
the  other  departments,  as  for  instance : 

Linings 

Ribbons 

Laces,  Veilings,  and  Nets 

Neckwear  —  ties,  scarfs,  collars,  etc. 

Trimmings  —  principally  artificial  silks 

Art  Needlework  —  embroidery  silks,  silk  materi- 
als, and  articles 

Notions  —  sewing-silk 

Buttons  —  silk-,  velvet-,  or  plush-covered 

Handkerchiefs 

Hosiery 

Underwear 

Corsets 

Ready-to- Wear  —  suits,  coats,  dresses,  blouses 

Millinery  —  hats  and  flowers 

Gloves  —  silk  gloves 

Shoes  —  slippers 

Bags  —  silk  and  velvet,  silk  linings 

Umbrellas  and  Parasols 

Drapery  and  Upholstery,  all-silk  and  part-silk 
materials 


Chapter  II 

SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  SILK 

Branches  of  the  Silk  Industry 

The  silk  industry  may  be  divided  into  four  general 
branches : 

I.  The  raising  of  the  silkworms  and  production  of 

the  cocoons. 
2*.  The  reeling  of  the  long  silk  fiber  from  the  whole 

cocoons   (from   which   a   continuous   thread 

may  be  drawn). 

3.  The  manufacture  of  spun  silk  from  the  pierced 

cocoons  and  other  forms  of  waste  silk. 

4.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  from  both  raw  and 

spun  silk. 

The  first  two  branches  of  the  industry  are  carried 
on  in  Asiatic  or  European  countries  where  labor  is 
cheap.  The  last  two  branches  are  carried  on  exten- 
sively in  the  United  States,  which  has  the  most  mod- 
ern machinery. 

Source  of  Silk 
Silk,  the  strongest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  four 


SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  SILK  5 

leading  textile  fibers,  is  the  filament  spun  by  a  silk- 
worm, a  sort  of  caterpillar,  in  making  its  cocoon. 

There  are  between  three  and  four  hundred  moths 
that  produce  silk  cocoons;  the  one  best-known  and 
most  widely  cultivated  is  the  Bombyx  mori. 

Silkworms  may  be  divided  into  two  classes : 

1.  The  cultivated  silkworm  is  carefully  raised  and 
fed  on  mulberry  leaves.  The  color  of  the  cocoon 
varies  from  white  to  different  shades  of  yellow  and 
sometimes  has  a  decidedly  greenish  cast.  It  is  raised 
in  Japan,  China,  Italy,  France,  Spain,  Austria,  India, 
Russia,  and  the  Levant. 

2.  The  wild  silkworm  is  found  in  India,  Japan,  and 
China.  These  worms  are  not  cared  for  and  usually 
feed  upon  oak  leaves.  The  tannin  and  the  iron  salts 
in  the  oak  leaves  affect  the  quality  of  the  threads  and 
must  be  removed  before  the  silk  can  be  properly  dyed. 
The  cocoon  is  a  light  brown  or  tan  in  color,  and  the 
threads,  which  are  tan-colored  also,  are  coarser, 
harsher,  and  more  uneven  than  the  silk  from  the  cul- 
tivated silkworm.  Three  varieties  of  silk  are  made 
from  the  wild  silkworms  —  pongee,  shantung,  and 
tussah. 

The  Silkworm 

The  silkworm  has  a  small  head  and  relatively  large 
jaws.  Inside  the  body  and  on  either  side  are  the  silk 
glands  which  terminate  in  small  orifices  or  spinerets 


6  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

under  the  jaws.  The  silk  filament  emerges  from  the 
spinerets  as  a  gummy  liquid  and  hardens  immediately 
when  it  is  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  silkworm  has  sixteen  legs  or  pads.  The  six 
front  legs  differ  from  the  ten  back  ones  and  are  used 
for  catching  the  leaves  for  feeding.  The  back  legs  are 
thicker  and  shorter.  The  worm  has  twelve  rings 
around  its  body  and  there  are  nine  black  spots  on  each 
side  of  its  body,  which  are  holes  for  breathing. 

Figure  i  shows  a  life-size  silkwo«-m. 

The  silkworms  live  but  two  months  during  which 
time  they  pass  through  four  stages  of  development : 

1.  The  egg.  The  eggs  are  laid  once  or  twice  a 
year,  300  to  500  at  a  time.     They  take  about  ten  days 

to  hatch. 

2.  The  worm.  The  worms  hatched  from  these 
eggs  live  one  month  during  which  they  grow  from 
%  of  an  inch  to  3  inches  in  length. 

3.  The  chrysalis.  The  worm  spends  three  days  in 
spinning  the  cocoon  and  then  changes  to  the  chrysalis 
form,  in  which  it  remains  for  20  days. 

4.  The  moth.  The  moth  emerges  from  the  cocoon, 
lives  three  days,  lays  its  eggs,  and  dies. 

The  silkworm  eggs  are  so  small  that  30,cxx)  or 
40,000  weigh  only  one  ounce.  From  this  ounce  of 
eggs,  cocoons  weighing  from  100  to  140  pounds  may 
be  expected,  and  these  will  produce  from  9  to  12 
pounds  of  silk. 


Figure  i.    Life-size  Silkworm  Ready  for  Molting 


Figure  2.     Silkworm  Beginning  Cocoon 


Figure  3.     Moth  Escaping  from  Cocoon 


Courtesy  of   Belding   Bros.    &   Co. 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


6  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

under  the  jaws.  The  silk  filament  emerges  from  the 
spinerets  as  a  gummy  liquid  and  hardens  immediately 
when  it  is  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  silkworm  has  sixteen  legs  or  pads.  The  six 
front  legs  differ  from  the  ten  back  ones  and  are  used 
for  catching  the  leaves  for  feeding.  The  back  legs  are 
thicker  and  shorter.  The  worm  has  twelve  rings 
around  its  body  and  there  are  nine  black  spots  on  each 
side  of  its  body,  which  are  holes  for  breathing. 

Figure  i  shows  a  life-size  silkworm. 

The  silkworms  live  but  two  months  during  which 
time  they  pass  through  four  stages  of  development : 

1.  The  egg.  The  eggs  are  laid  once  or  twice  a 
year,  300  to  500  at  a  time.     They  take  about  ten  days 

to  hatch. 

2.  The  worm.  The  worms  hatched  from  these 
eggs  live  one  month  during  which  they  grow  from 
%  of  an  inch  to  3  inches  in  length. 

3.  The  chrysalis.  The  worm  spends  three  days  in 
spinning  the  cocoon  and  then  changes  to  the  chrysalis 
form,  in  which  it  remains  for  20  days. 

4.  The  moth.  The  moth  emerges  from  the  cocoon, 
lives  three  days,  lays  its  eggs,  and  dies. 

The  silkworm  eggs  are  so  small  that  30,000  or 
40,000  weigh  only  one  ounce.  From  this  ounce  of 
eggs,  cocoons  weighing  from  100  to  140  pounds  may 
be  expected,  and  these  will  produce  from  9  to  12 
pounds  of  silk. 


MK"  1 

■ 

^^M 

^^^^^^H^^^uii^L:, '-   -^^^1^^  ^h. 

|MB|# 

^ 

^^1...  1 
^   l^<  ii 

^^^^^B 

.■?,^^V:.    -    '=-V 

^^^^^ 

^^^ 

'^^ 

Figure  i.    Life-size  Silkworm  Ready  for  Molting 


Figure  2.     Silkworm  Beginning  Cocoon 


Figure  3.     Moth  Escaping  from  Cocoon 


Courtesy  of   Belding    Bros.    &   Co. 


SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  SILK  ^ 

The  excellence  of  the  silk  depends  largely  upon  the 
mulberry  leaves  upon  which  the  worm  feeds ;  the  white 
mulberry  is  considered  the  best.  For  the  first  few 
days  the  small  worm  sucks  only  the  juice  from  the  leaf ; 
then  it  begins  to  eat  the  tender  part. 

The  frontispiece  shows  Japanese  workers  preparing 
the  leaves  and  feeding  the  silkworms  during  the  first 
week. 

Life  of  the  Silkworm 

The  worm  has  four  molting  seasons.  At  the  end 
of  the  first  week  it  stops  eating  for  a  few  days  while 
it  sheds  its  skin  or  molts  for  the  first  time.  When  it 
begins  eating  again  it  is  very  hungry  and  eats  rapidly. 
When  many  worms  are  eating  the  noise  sounds  like 
falling  rain. 

After  about  four  days  the  silkworm  sheds  its  skin 
a  second  time,  about  four  or  five  days  later  a  third 
time,  and  ^vt  or  seven  days  afterwards  a  fourth  time. 
Whenever  it  molts  it  stops  eating  for  a  couple  of  days, 
raises  itself  on  its  hind  legs,  and  remains  quiet.  The 
skin  begins  to  crack  above  the  nose.  The  head  comes 
out  first,  and  then  the  whole  body.  As  soon  as  the 
worm  has  cast  oflf  the  old  skin  it  is  ready  to  eat  and 
grow  again.  It  consumes  an  enormous  quantity  of 
leaves  between  the  third  and  fourth  molting.  Each 
time  it  sheds  its  skin  the  worm  becomes  lighter  in 
color. 


i 


I 


8 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Silkworm  Diseases 

There  are  many  silkworm  diseases.  At  times  the 
rooms  where  the  silkworms  are  kept  are  infested  with 
the  germs  of  contagious  diseases  and  the  worms  die 
before  they  are  ready  to  spin.  These  diseases  are  the 
result  of  domestication;  the  wild  silkworms  are  less 
subject  to  them. 

The  silk  growers  must  constantly  watch  for  these 
diseases  and  any  carelessness  may  cause  the  loss  of  all 
the  worms. 

Spinning  and  Making  the  Cocoon 

When  it  is  ready  to  spin  the  cocoon  from  the  silk 
which  is  secreted  in  its  body,  the  silkworm  loses  its 
appetite,  shrinks  a  little,  is  restless,  and  moves  its  head 
constantly  from  side  to  side.  Finally  it  raises  itself 
on  its  hind  legs,  reaches  up  and  attaches  itself  to  a 
branch  which  is  placed  conveniently  near.  It  first 
throws  out  guy  lines  of  silk,  attaching  itself  to  the 
branch  in  this  way.  These  guy  lines,  which  are  of  in- 
ferior quality,  are  used  later  as  waste  for  spun  silk.^ 

Figure  2  shows  a  silkworm  beginning  its  cocoon. 

During  the  time  it  is  spinning  the  cocoon,  the  silk- 
worm eats  nothing.  In  spinning  the  cocoon  the  head 
of  the  worm  is  thrown  back  and  forth  and  the  silk  is 

1  In  rearing  large  numbers  of  silkworms  it  frequently  happens  that  two 
worms  spin  one  cocoon  which  envelops  them  jointly.  These  cocoons  are 
known  by  the  trade  name  of  "  duppions."  The  silk  is  inferior  as  it  can- 
not be  reeled  in  an  even  thread. 


SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  SILK  9 

formed  like  a  figure  8  in  regular  rows  up  and  down. 
The  length  of  the  usable  cocoon  thread  varies  from 
400  to  700  yards,  seldom  reaching  1,000  yards. 

While  it  is  spinning,  the  silkworm  gradually  dimin- 
ishes in  size  and  the  inside  thread,  which  is  the  last 
spun,  is  thin  and  weak,  so  that  it  is  treated  as  waste  for 
spun  silk. 

The  parts  of  the  silk  filament  are : 

1.  Fibroin,  which  is  the  silk  thread  and  insoluble 

in  boiling  water. 

2.  Seracin,  which  is  the  gum  or  glue  holding  the 

two  silk  threads  together  as  they  come  from 
the  spinnerets  below  the  mouth  of  the  silk- 
worm. This  seracin  is  soluble  in  boiling 
water. 

The  silkworm  changes  to  a  chrysalis  while  in  the 
cocoon  and  if  it  is  not  killed  it  will,  after  a  certain 
time,  emerge  as  a  moth  from  one  end  of  the  cocoon. 
After  leaving  the  cocoon  the  moths,  which  are  small, 
whitish,  and  have  no  mouths,  live  only  a  few  days, 
during  which  time  the  female  lays  from  300  to  400 
eggs. 

Only  a  comparatively  few  moths  which  are  needed 
for  reproduction  are  allowed  to  escape  in  this  way. 
The  majority  of  them  are  stifled  before  it  is  time  for 
them  to  leave  the  cocoon.  Two  kinds  of  cocoons  are 
the  result. 


\  !i 


.{ 


1 


lO 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Whole  Cocoons 

In  the  whole  cocoon  the  chrysalis,  or  moth,  has  been 
stifled  so  that  it  cannot  force  its  way  out.  The  stifling 
is  eflfected  by  placing  the  cocoons  in  a  hot  oven.  From 
the  unpierced  cocoon  a  continuous  length  of  silken 
thread  may  be  reeled,  and  the  threads  of  several  co- 
coons reeled  together  produce  what  is  called  raw  or 
reeled  silk. 

Pierced  Cocoons 

The  cocoons  from  which  the  moths  have  escaped 
are  called  pierced  cocoons.  In  coming  out  of  the 
cocoon  the  moth  breaks  all  the  threads  at  one  end ;  con- 
sequently a  long  thread  cannot  be  reeled  from  the 
cocoon. 

Figure  3  shows  a  moth  escaping  from  its  cocoon. 

Reeling  the  Silk  from  the  Cocoon 

The  reeling  of  the  silk  from  cocoons  is  generally 
done  by  women  and  girls,  and  most  often  in  the 
country  in  which  the  worms  are  raised.  It  is  done 
either  in  the  homes  of  the  people  or  in  the  small  fac- 
tories called  filatures.  There  are  three  methods  of 
reeling  silk : 

I.  Primitive.  Silks  reeled  by  this  method  are  called 
Tsatlees.  It  is  a  hand-process  and  the  thread  is  ir- 
regular in  size,  that  is,  it  has  knots  and  bunches.  The 
skeins  are  frequently  of  different  sizes. 


SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  SILK        II 

2.  Rereels.  By  this  method  the  silks  reeled  in  the 
primitive  way  are  reeled  over  again  and  the  result  is  a 
smoother  and  more  reliable  silk.  The  rereeled  silk 
comes  from  China  and  Japan  mostly. 

3.  Steam  filatures.  This  is  a  system  of  machine- 
reeling.  The  silk  is  smooth  and  sent  out  in  a  much 
better  condition  than  in  the  hand-process.  It  runs 
better  when  used  for  making  silk  fabrics  in  the  high- 
speed machines.  It  also  brings  a  higher  price  and  is 
worth  it,  for  it  causes  less  trouble  in  weaving. 

The  Process  of  Reeling 

1.  The  cocoons  are  sorted  for  quality  and  color, 
each  color  and  quality  being  kept  by  itself. 

2.  The  outside  loose  silk,  by  which  the  worm  at- 
taches itself  to  the  branches,  is  first  taken  off  the 
cocoon  and  saved  and  used  for  spun  silk. 

3.  The  cocoons  are  soaked  in  warm  water  to  soften 
the  gum  which  holds  the  silk  together. 

4.  The  cocoons  are  then  brushed  while  floating  in 
the  water,  until  a  continuous  fiber  is  obtained,  that  is 
the  loose  fibers  are  caught  in  the  straws  of  the  brush 
and  unwound  until  all  of  the  outside  threads  of  silk 
have  been  taken  off  the  cocoon  and  what  is  termed  a 
long  end  is  found.  Then  the  threads  from  four  or 
more  cocoons  are  united  and  twisted  to  form  a  single 
thread,  because  the  thread  from  a  single  cocoon  is  too 
fine  to  use. 


^ 


12 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


The  threads  are  wound  on  a  reel,  a  wooden  frame 
with  arms.  To  form  a  compact  and  rounded  thread 
and  to  keep  the  threads  from  tangling  as  they  come 
from  the  cocoons,  each  cocoon  thread  is  passed  through 
a  ring  before  the  several  threads  are  finally  brought 
together  to  form  the  one  thread.  This  completed 
thread  when  made  up  into  skeins  becomes  the  raw  silk 
of  commerce. 

Figure  4  shows  the  threads  being  reeled  into  skeins. 
Great  care  is  necessary  in  reeling,  as  the  threads 
from  cocoons  are  not  all  of  the  same  thickness;  the 
silk  as  spun  by  the  worm  is  heavier  at  the  beginning 
of  the  cocoon  and  much  finer  and  poorer  at  the  end, 
varying  more  or  less  throughout  its  entire  length. 
The  person  who  has  care  of  the  reeling  must  try  to 
keep  the  silk  thread  uniform,  by  adding  a  cocoon 
thread  from  time  to  time,  whenever  the  thread  being 
reeled  grows  thin.  The  thread  must  also  be  watched 
carefully  to  avoid  any  breaks. 

The  form  in  which  the  reeled  silk  is  shipped  varies 
in  different  countries.  In  China  and  Japan  the  skeins 
are  taken  off  the  reels,  twisted  together,  and  made 
up  into  packages,  called  "  books,"  which  weigh  from 
4  to  10  lbs.  each.  These  are  packed  in  bales  varying 
in  weight  from  100  to  140  lbs.  In  European  and  other 
countries  the  skeins  are  made  up  into  bales  without 
being  put  into  "  books."     These  bales  weigh  about  200 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


^ 


12 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


The  threads  are  wound  on  a  reel,  a  wooden  frame 
with  arms.  To  form  a  compact  and  rounded  thread 
and  to  keep  the  threads  from  tangling  as  they  come 
from  the  cocoons,  each  cocoon  thread  is  passed  through 
a  ring  before  the  several  threads  are  finally  brought 
together  to  form  the  one  thread.  This  completed 
thread  when  made  up  into  skeins  becomes  the  raw  silk 
of  commerce. 

Figure  4  shows  the  threads  being  reeled  into  skeins. 
Great  care  is  necessary  in  reeling,  as  the  threads 
from  cocoons  are  not  all  of  the  same  thickness;  the 
silk  as  spun  by  the  worm  is  heavier  at  the  beginning 
of  the  cocoon  and  much  finer  and  poorer  at  the  end, 
varying  more  or  less  throughout  its  entire  length. 
The  person  who  has  care  of  the  reeling  must  try  to 
keep  the  silk  thread  uniform,  by  adding  a  cocoon 
thread  from  time  to  time,  whenever  the  thread  being 
reeled  grows  thin.  The  thread  must  also  be  watched 
carefully  to  avoid  any  breaks. 

The  form  in  which  the  reeled  silk  is  shipped  varies 
in  diflFerent  countries.  In  Qiina  and  Japan  the  skeins 
are  taken  off  the  reels,  twisted  together,  and  made 
up  into  packages,  called  "  books,"  which  weigh  from 
4  to  10  lbs.  each.  These  are  packed  in  bales  varying 
in  weight  from  100  to  140  lbs.  In  European  and  other 
countries  the  skeins  are  made  up  into  bales  without 
being  put  into  "  books."     These  bales  weigh  about  200 


1 


I 


i 


SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  SILK        13 

lbs.  each.     Figure  13  shows  the  raw  silk  bundled  and 
baled  for  shipment. 

Wild  Silk 

Tussah  silk  cocoons  are  softened  with  an  alkalin 
substance  and  are  reeled  in  this  damp  gummy  condi- 
tion without  being  floated  in  water ;  consequently  the 
filaments  do  not  cohere  so  well.  The  coloring  matter 
is  in  the  fiber  and  it  is  hard  therefore  to  bleach  this 
variety  of  silk. 

Silks  made  from  the  cocoons  of  the  wild  silkworms, 
as  already  stated,  are  usually  of  a  poorer  quality  than 
those  from  the  domesticated  worm ;  they  are  uneven 
in  texture,  harder  to  bleach,  and  do  not  take  dyes  so 
well.  But  on  the  other  hand  they  are  often  more  dur- 
able than  the  ordinary  silk  fabrics,  probably  because 
they  are  not  heavily  weighted. 

These  silks  are  cheaper  because  no  care  is  taken  of 
the  wild  silkworms,  while  the  domesticated  worms  re- 
quire constant  attention.  Much  time,  however,  is  con- 
sumed  in  collecting  the  cocoons.  The  finishing  proc- 
esses are  less  expensive  because  the  silk  is  more  often 
used  in  its  natural  color. 


I 


I 


I  1 


Chapter  III 

RAW  SILK  AND  SPUN  SILK 

Raw  Silk 

When  cotton,  flax,  or  wool  arrives  at  a  factory  the 
fibers  are  matted  together  and  must  be  separated, 
combed  out,  and  twisted  into  a  continuous  thread  by 
a  complicated  process  of  spinning. 

The  silkworms,  however,  have  spun  their  own 
threads  and  when  the  delicate  filaments  have  been 
reeled  from  the  perfect  cocoons,  the  raw  silk  appears 
in  long  fine  skeins  which  are  not  only  easier  to  manu- 
facture into  yarn,  but  are  stronger,  than  any  spun 
thread  of  the  same  weight. 

Waste  silk  must  be  spun  like  the  other  fibers,  but  raw 
or  reeled  silk  is  "thrown"  in  order  to  prepare  it  for 
weaving.  The  manufacturers  of  yarn  from  raw  silk 
are  called  throwsters.  The  term  throwing  is  used  only 
in  raw  silk  manufacture. 

Conditioning 

Since  silk  is  sold  principally  by  weight  and  because 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  amount  of  water  it  has 
absorbed,  its  weight  must  he  accurately  ascertained. 
A  certain  amount  of  moisture,  about  ii  per  cent,  is 
allowed  in  commercial  practice,  but  silk  will  hold'  as 


RAW  SILK  AND  SPUN  SILK 


IS 


much  as  3  per  cent  without  appearing  damp,  and  can 
be  made  to  absorb  an  even  greater  amount.  Too  much 
moisture  aflFects  the  strength  and  elasticity  of  the  silk. 
The  process  by  which  the  moisture  is  reduced  to  the 
required  standard  is  called  "conditioning."  Official 
conditioning  houses  are  established  in  all  the  large 
centers  of  the  silk  trade. 

When  the  bales  containing  the  books  of  raw  silk 
reach  the  manufacturer,  they  are  opened  and  the  skeins 
are  weighed  accurately.  They  are  then  dried  thor- 
oughly  in  ovens,  weighed  again,  the  difference  in 
weight  noted,  and  the  dry  weight  of  the  full  bale 
worked  out  by  proportion.  The  conditioned  weight 
of  the  bale  is  based  on  this  dry  weight  plus  the  allowed 
regain  of  moisture —  11  per  cent. 

Silk  Throwing 

^^  The  series  of  processes  included  under  the  term 
"silk  throwing,"  consist  of: 

Sorting 

Soaking 

Drying 

Winding 

Doubling  and  twisting 

Sorting 

When  necessary  the  skeins  are  Sorted  according  to 
color,  size,  and  quality,  and  laid  in  piles. 


i6 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Soaking 

In  the  process  of  throwing  some  of  the  skeins  are 
soaked  to  soften  the  gum  before  winding.  In  this 
case  lukewarm  water  is  used,  which  has  in  it  some  olive 
or  neat's  foot  oil,  and  olive  oil  soap.  Other  silks  are 
thrown  "  bright,"  that  is,  they  are  not  soaked,  but  are 
wound  without  softening  the  gum. 

Drying 

The  skeins  of  silk  which  have  been  soaked  are  either 
dried  in  a  hydroextractor,  which  revolves  rapidly  and 
throws  the  moisture  from  the  skeins,  or  they  are  hung 
on  poles  in  a  small  steam-heated  room  or  closet. 

Winding 

The  process  of  winding  prepares  the  silk  for  the 
doubling  and  twisting. 

The  skeins  are  placed  on  a  series  of  reels  on  the 
front  of  the  winding  machine,  the  end  of  each  skein 
passing  through  an  eyelet  to  the  bobbin.  The  silk  is 
wound  up  and  down  the  length  of  this  bobbin.  The 
thread  passes  through  two  fixed  plates  which  remove 
irregularities  and  knots.  The  machine  is  fitted  so 
that  it  stops  immediately  if  a  thread  breaks  or  anything 
is  wrong.     One  worker  can  manage  several  machines. 

Doubling  and  Twisting 
The  silk  from  the  skeins  is  so  fine  that  several 


RAW  SILK  AND  SPUN  SILK 


17 


strands  must  be  put  together  and  twisted  in  order  to 
make  a  thread  heavy  enough  for  weaving.  This 
process  is  called  doubling  and  twisting. 

In  the  doubling  several  threads  from  as  many  bob- 
bins are  put  together  to  form  one  thread,  which  is 
wound  upon  a  new  bobbin.  The  doubled  thread  is 
then  twisted  on  another  machine  and  again  wound. 
In  some  modem  machinery  these  two  processes  are 
combined. 

The  number  of  threads  and  the  twist  are  deter- 
mined by  the  future  use  of  the  silk. 
There  are  three  varieties  of  yam. 
Singles  are  single  strands  of  reeled  silk ;  they  may  be 
twisted  or  not.     When  they  are  hard-twisted  they  are 
used  for  making  gauze  and  chifiFons. 

Tram  is  used  for  filling  or  cross  threads.  Two  or 
more  strands  of  raw  silk  are  put  together  and  twisted 
slightly  to  form  one  strand  and  then  wound  on  bob- 
bins. A  poorer  quality  of  silk  is  generally  used  for 
tram,  as  strength  is  not  required.  Hard-twisted  tram 
is  used  for  the  filling  of  crepes. 

Organsine  is  used  for  warp  or  lengthwise  threads, 
and  must  be  strong.  It  is  made  from  the  better  grades 
of  silk.  A  single  thread  is  twisted  with  a  right-hand 
twist,  then  two  or  three  of  these  are  put  together  and 
twisted  with  a  left-hand  twist,  and  so  made  into  one 
strong  thread  and  wound  on  a  bobbin. 

The  luster  is  greater  when  the  threads  are  slightly 


i 

r 


i8 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


twisted.  Tram  therefore  has  considerable  luster, 
while  the  luster  of  organzine  varies  according  to  the 
amount  of  twist  used. 

After  twisting,  the  silk  is  reeled  into  skeins  contain- 
ing from  500  to  2,500  yards  according  to  the  size  of 
the  thread.  It  is  now  ready  for  the  dyeing  and  weav- 
ing processes. 

Sewing-thread,  or  sewing-silk,  is  made  by  combining 
two  strands  of  twisted  thread  into  one  hard-twisted 
thread.     (See  manual  for  "  Notions  Department.") 

Machine-twist  is  composed  of  three  strands  of 
twisted  threads  united  into  a  hard-twisted  thread. 

Stretching 

This  is  a  process  usually  employed  only  for  sewing- 
silks.  The  twisted  thread  from  the  bobbins  is  passed 
through  water  and  over  rollers  which  stretch  the 
thread.  Any  uneven  parts  are  drawn  out,  making  the 
thread  a  uniform  size.  Silk  that  is  stretched  in  the 
gum  has  great  brilliance  or  luster. 

Spun  Silk 

Raw  or  reeled  silk  was  the  only  silk  used  to  any 
considerable  extent  until  about  sixty  years  ago,  when 
the  process  of  spinning  by  machinery,  which  had  been 
applied  to  the  other  textile  fibers  for  nearly  a  century, 
was  found  to  be  equally  practical  for  silk  which  could 
not  be  reeled. 


RAW  SILK  AND  SPUN  SILK 


19 


By  this  process  short  and  broken  silk  fibers  are  made 
into  one  continuous  thread.  They  are  not  long  and 
strong,  like  the  reeled  silk,  and  the  yarn  is  not  so 
lustrous,  for  it  must  be  twisted  more ;  consequently  it 
makes  an  inferior  and  usually  a  cheaper  silk.  The 
best  spun  silk  yarns  are  largely  used  for  filling,  or 
weft,  for  silk  dress  goods  or  for  half-silk  goods. 
The  lower  grades  are  used  for  poorer  dress  materials 
and  for  knitting. 

Waste  silk  has  been  utilized  only  since  the  perfect- 
ing of  spinning  machinery  during  the  last  century. 
Before  that  time  the  short  fibers  were  useless. 

The  first  patent  for  the  carding  and  spinning  of 
waste  silk  was  obtained  in  England  in  1671  by  Ed- 
mund Blood,  although  the  spinning  of  waste  silk  into 
thread  did  not  become  a  large  industry  until  recent 
years.  Silk  was  probably  never  spun  by  the  old 
method  of  spindle  and  distaff. 

Sources  of  Spun  Silk 
The  sources  from  which  spun  silk  is  obtained  are : 

1.  Pierced  cocoons,  from  which  the  moth  has  been 

allowed  to  escape. 

2.  Floss,  which  is  silk  of  an  inferior  quality,  in- 

cluding that  spun  first  by  the  worm  in  fasten- 
ing the  cocoon  to  the  branches,  and  the  silk 
from  the  inside  of  the  cocoon,  the  last  to  be 
spun. 


i 


20 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


3.  Silk  waste,   which  comes   from  the  different 

processes  of  manufacture. 

4.  Wild  silk  cocoons,  which  cannot  be  reeled. 

5.  Double   cocoons,    where   the   cocoons   of   two 

moths  are  fastened  together. 

The  waste  silk  is  imported  in  bales  and  is  received 
by  the  factories  in  this  form.  Some  bales  may  contain 
all  pierced  cocoons.  Other  bales  may  be  made  up  en- 
tirely of  long  tangled  waste  from  the  reeling  of  the 
raw  silk  from  the  cocoons.  These  long  tangled  cords 
are  known  as  frisons. 

The  bales  are  opened  and  the  contents  examined 
carefully,  in  order  to  remove  as  much  dirt  and  foreign 
substance  as  possible. 

Processes  in  the  Preparation  of  Spun  Silk 
The  processes  are : 

1.  Removal  of  the  gum 

2.  Beating  and  opening 

3.  Combing 

4.  Inspecting 

5.  Spinning: 

Drawing  and  doubling 
Twisting  and  winding 

6.  Gassing  or  Singeing 

Removal  of  the  Gum  from  Waste  Silk 
As  waste  silk  must  be  spun  it  is  necessary  to  remove 


RAW  SILK  AND  SPUN  SILK 


21 


the  gum  before  it  can  be  handled.  This  is  done  by 
boiling,  maceration  (or  schapping),  or  chemical  de- 
gumming. 

1.  Boiling  off.  The  silk  is  put  in  open-mesh  bags 
and  pulled  up  and  down  in  boiling  soapy  water  for 
three  or  four  hours.  The  softened  gum  passes  out 
through  the  meshes.  The  silk  is  then  transferred  to  a 
washing  machine  containing  cold  water. 

2.  Schappe  qr  fermentation  method.  Schappe  is 
French  for  spun  silk.  In  this  process  the  waste  silk 
is  put  into  a  tank  of  warm,  soapy  water  and  left  for 
two  or  three  weeks  until  fermentation  sets  in  and  the 
gum  is  loosened.  If  the  silk  is  not  taken  out  at  the 
right  time  the  fiber  is  weakened  and  the  silk  loses  some 
of  its  luster. 

3.  Chemical  degumming.  In  this  process  waste  silk 
is  degummed  by  soaking  in  an  alkali  or  in  an  acid  solu- 
tion. 

The  silk  loses  about  a  quarter  of  its  weight  when  the 
gum  is  taken  out.  It  is  next  washed  in  hot  water 
for  about  five  minutes,  then  in  cold  water  for  a  longer 
period,  and  dried. 

Beating  and  Opening 

The  silk  is  put  into  a  machine  which  removes  the 
dirt  and  foreign  matter,  such  as  chrysalis  shells,  sticks, 
etc.,  and  opens  up  the  fibers  and  makes  them  more 
flexible. 


►  * 


I: 


22 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Combing 

In  the  next  machine  the  silk  fiber  comes  in  contact 
with  revolving  rollers  upon  the  surface  of  which  are 
fine  needles.  These  needles  comb  and  straighten  out 
the  longer  fibers  and  pull  off  the  shorter  fibers.  The 
silk  comes  out  in  the  form  of  sheets  or  **  laps  "  which 
may  be  combed  several  times. 

The  short  fibers  which  are  combed  out  are  known  as 
noils,  and  may  be  used  over  again  for  an  inferior 
quality  of  silk.  Uusually  these  are  made  into  goods 
which  have  no  luster;  they  are  used  mostly  for  uphol- 
stery. 

Inspecting 

The  laps  or  rolls  of  silk  fibers  are  carefully  inspected 
and  any  impurities  are  removed  by  hand.  The  work 
of  inspection  is  done  in  a  dark  room  upon  a  table  of 
glass  lighted  from  below,  so  that  impurities  are  easily 
seen  and  removed. 

The  Spinning  Process  —  Drawing  and  Doubling 

The  drawing  machine  further  combs  and  straightens 
and  also  draws  out  the  fibers  and  forms  them  into 
continuous  strands  called  slivers,  which  are  like  soft, 
loose  ribbons.  These  pass  through  other  drawing 
machines,  into  which  several  of  the  strands  are  fed 
at  one  time,  and  come  out  as  one  continuous  strand, 
the  same  size  as  one  of  the  original  number.    In  the 


RAW  SILK  AND  SPUN  SILK 


^3 


last  process  the  slivers  are  wound  on  bobbins  ready 
for  the  roving  frame. 

Twisting  and  Winding 

In  the  roving  frame  the  yarn  is  drawn  from  the 
bobbins  at  the  top  of  the  frame,  then  twisted  as  it 
passes  from  the  bobbins  to  the  spindle,  and  then  wound 
on  spindles  at  the  bottom  of  the  frame. 

Gassing  or  Singeing 

The  finished  yarn  is  often  roughened  by  lumps 
which  are  smoothed  off  by  a  process  called  gassing  or 
singeing.  The  yarn  is  run  through  a  gas  flame  at  so 
high  a  speed  that  the  flame  will  not  bum  the  thread, 
but  will  burn  off  all  the  loose  ends. 

In  the  last  process  the  thread  is  wound  from  the 
bobbins  into  skeins  ready  for  dyeing. 

Uses  of  Raw  and  Spun  Silk 

Raw  or  reeled  silk  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fine 
silk  materials  (called  broad  silks)  and  fine  sewing- 
thread. 

Spun  silk  is  used  in  making  coarse  broad  silks,  knit 
goods,  hosiery,  braids  and  bindings,  embroidery,  and 
crochet  silks.  It  is  not  so  strong  as  reeled  silk  and  it 
does  not  have  as  much  luster,  because  it  is  twisted 
harder  than  reeled  silk  and  also  because  there  are  many 
short  ends  projecting  from  the  surface  of  the  yam. 


I 


24 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


The  two  kinds  of  silk  are  often  combined  in  the  same 
material,  the  raw  silk  being  used  for  the  warp  and  the 
spun  silk  for  the  filling. 


. 


Chapter  IV 

WEAVING 

Woven  Sak 

If  a  piece  of  plain  silk  is  imraveled,  many  length- 
wise threads  are  found  placed  side  by  side  and  inter- 
laced by  one  continuous  crosswise  thread.  This  cross- 
wise thread,  which  has  been  introduced  in  some  man- 
ner from  edge  to  edge,  holds  the  lengthwise  threads 
together  and  in  position,  forming  a  material  which 
will  be  more  or  less  durable  according  to  the  strength 
and  fineness  of  the  threads  and  the  way  in  which  they 
are  interlaced. 

The  simplest  weaving  consists  of  two  sets  of 
threads:  (i)  the  lengthwise  threads,  which  are  ar- 
ranged first  in  order  and  are  called  the  warp  threads, 
and  (2)  the  crosswise  threads,  which  are  called  the 
woof,  weft,  or  filling  threads. 

The  filling  threads  as  they  are  interlaced  across  the 
warp  threads  are  carried  over  one  and  under  one;  in 
the  next  row  the  threads  alternate  —  under  one  and 
over  one  —  just  as  in  darning.  Each  row  is  pushed 
up  close  to  the  preceding  one  so  that  the  doth  may 
be  firm. 


ppi 


26 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Warp  and  Weft 

The  lengthwise,  or  warp,  threads  must  be  placed  in 
position  first.  Since  the  strain  on  these  threads  is 
greater  and  they  need  to  be  strong,  each  thread  is  made 
up  of  two  or  more  strands  firmly  twisted  together, 
making  a  heavier  thread  than  the  weft.  The  weft  is 
only  slightly  twisted  into  soft,  thinner  threads  which 
can  be  closely  pushed  together.  (See  Chapter  III  on 
organzine  and  tram.) 

For  the  durability  of  the  silk  and  for  the  good  ap- 
pearance of  the  material,  it  is  of  great  importance  in 
weaving  that  the  difference  between  the  warp  threads 
and  the  filling  threads  should  not  be  too  great.  For 
mstance,  if  the  warp  thread  were  very  strong  and 
heavy  and  the  filling  thread  fine  and  weak,  the  silk 
would  not  wear  well. 

Antiquity  of  Weaving 

Weaving  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  handicrafts  and 
seems  to  have  been  practiced  by  all  primitive  people. 
In  the  more  backward  countries  today  there  is  hardly 
a  savage  tribe  which  has  not  in  some  way  discovered 
the  art  of  making  thread  and  weaving  it  into  cloth. 
They  follow  the  same  methods  and  use  the  same  ap- 
pliances as  those  of  very  early  times,  so  that  it  can  be 
seen  how  directly  all  the  modem  improvements  in 
weaving  are  based  on  early  discoveries. 
Weaving  was  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection 


WEAVING 


27 


by  the  great  peoples  of  ancient  times  in  Egypt,  China, 
India,  Greece,  and  Rome.  This  perfection  was 
reached,  however,  not  by  the  use  of  complicated 
machinery,  as  at  present,  but  by  patient  hand-labor. 
The  multitudes  of  warp  threads  were  stretched  on 
simple  looms  and  each  thread  was  picked  up  in  its 
turn  and  the  weft  inserted. 

All  ancient  people  seem  to  have  known  two  sorts  of 
weaving,  which  differ  only  in  the  way  the  weft  is  car- 
ried across  the  warp.  In  one  kind  the  warp  is  tight 
and  the  weft  is  carried  across  with  a  sufficient  tension 
to  pull  it  straight  and  warp  and  weft  show  in  equal 
proportion.  In  the  second  way  the  weft  is  left  slack 
as  it  is  carried  across  and  the  result  is  that  all  the  warp 
is  covered  by  the  weft. 

Raw  Material  Used  in  Ancient  Times 

The  rav/  material  used  by  the  ancient  weavers  de- 
pended on  the  natural  products  with  which  they  were 
familiar  and  the  inventive  skill  which  they  used. 

The  simplest  of  these  raw  materials  for  weaving 
were  the  long  grasses  and  the  leaves  of  any  plants 
which  could  be  split  into  strips,  but  the  principal  textile 
fibers  were  also  used  by  ancient  peoples. 

The  Egyptians  used  flax  and  produced  the  first  linen ; 
the  people  of  India  used  cotton,  as  the  cotton  plant 
grew  plentifully  in  that  country,  and  their  fine  cottons 
were  a  marvel  to  the  other  nations ;  the  pastoral  tribes 


28 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


V  : 


used  the  wool  and  hair  which  was  shorn  from  their 
flocks;  while  the  Chinese  had  the  monopoly  of  silk, 
and  their  silk  fabrics  were  the  admiration  of  all  who 
could  buy  them. 

An  account  of  the  development  of  the  art  of  weav- 
ing cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest  to  those  who  handle 
woven  fabrics,  and  the  principles  of  weaving  and  the 
power-loom  of  today  will  be  better  understood  if  the 
more  simple  parts  of  the  hand-loom  are  described. 

Origin  of  the  Loom 

Where  only  the  grasses  and  rushes  were  used,  as  in 
the  weaving  of  mats  and  baskets,  they  could  be  held 
in  place  easily,  but  as  soon  as  any  length  was  required, 
it  was  necessary  to  plan  some  kind  of  frame  to  hold 
the  warp  threads  tight  while  the  weft  was  interlaced 
across  them.  This  frame  was  universally  called  a 
loom  and  was  improved  from  time  to  time  according  to 
the  needs  and  ingenuity  of  the  weaver. 

Figure  6  in  the  manual  for  the  "  Cotton  and  Linen 
Departments  "  shows  a  primitive  loom. 

Looms  have  been  represented  in  the  paintings  and 
sculptures  of  ancient  artists.  The  early  poets  allude 
to  the  loom  and  the  operations  of  weaving  and  needle- 
work. Illustrations  of  looms  have  been  found  in  some 
of  the  ancient  tombs  in  Egypt,  and  looms  also  appear 
in  some  very  old  paintings.  These  looms  are  in  dif- 
ferent positions;  in  one  picture  the  warp  is  stretched 


WEAVING 


29 


on  the  ground,  and  a  figure  appears  to  be  weaving  a 
mat,  while  others  show  upright  frames. 

Although  weaving  was  without  doubt  a  domestic 
occupation  in  Greece  and  Rome,  there  are  fewer  illus- 
trations of  the  art  than  are  found  in  Egypt.  On  two 
ancient  Greek  vases  the  looms  of  Penelope  and  Circe 
are  pictured;  these  are  both  represented  as  upright 
looms,  differing  somewhat  from  those  of  Egypt. 

Nothing  very  definite  can  be  learned  from  these  pic- 
tures as  to  the  methods  by  which  the  ancient  peoples 
procured  their  fine  and  beautiful  results.  However, 
these  references  prove  that  the  occupations  of  weaving 
and  embroidering  were  carried  on  extensively  in  the 
ancient  world  and  were  held  in  high  esteem. 

An  interesting  drawing  in  a  London  museum  proves 
that  the  Chinese  had  looms  for  plain  weaving  and  that, 
by  adding  various  contrivances,  they  made  pattern- 
weaving  looms  on  which  they  wove  beautiful  silk 
fabrics. 

Hand-Looms 

In  the  most  primitive  looms  the  lifting  of  the  threads 
of  the  warp  for  the  intersection  of  the  weft  was  done 
by  the  fingers ;  this  was  slow  work,  and  very  early  in 
the  history  of  weaving  a  device  was  used  by  which 
the  weaver  could  lift  the  threads  with  his  feet  by 
means  of  treadles  attached  to  the  heddles  through 
which  the  warp  threads  were  inserted. 


if 


30 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


It  is  not  known  when  this  improved  loom  was  first 
used,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  Chinese  were  its  orig- 
inators, because  silk  is  so  fine  that  it  would  be  most 
difficult  to  pick  up  the  warp  with  the  fingers. 

From  the  first  attempts  at  weaving  until  the  devel- 
opment of  power-looms,  all  sorts  of  devices  were  con- 
stantly being  added  to  the  loom,  not  only  that  the 
weaving  might  be  made  easier,  but  also  that  more  com- 
plicated weaving  might  be  done  and  more  beautiful 
fabrics  woven. 

Parts  of  the  Hand-Loom 

The  hand-loom  consists  of  the  following  parts : 

Frame 
Warp  beam 
Cloth  beam 
Heddles 
Harness 
Reed  or  batten 
Treadles 
Shuttle 

The  frame  holds  the  parts  of  the  loom. 

The  warp  beam,  upon  which  the  warp  threads  are 
wound  before  weaving,  is  at  the  back  of  the  loom. 

The  cloth  beam  is  at  the  front  of  the  loom.  The 
warp  threads,  after  they  have  been  carried  through 
the  heddles  and  reed,  are  fastened  to  the  cloth  beam 
and  the  finished  cloth  is  wound  upon  it. 


4* 


WEAVING 


31 


The  heddles  are  either  wires  or  cords  having  a  hole 
or  eye  in  the  center  through  which  the  warp  threads 
pass. 

The  harness  consists  of  two  or  more  sets  of  heddles. 
These  sets  of  heddles  are  suspended  from  a  beam 
which  is  attached  to  the  loom  at  about  the  center  of 
the  frame. 

The  reed  or  batten  is  composed  of  a  large  number  of 
wires  set  in  a  frame-work.  These  wires,  which  re- 
semble a  comb,  may  be  set  near  together  or  farther 
apart.  The  warp  threads  pass  between  the  wires  and 
the  fineness  of  the  cloth  depends  upon  the  width  of  the 
spaces  between  the  wires.  The  reed  is  also  used  for 
pushing  up  the  weft,  so  that  the  threads  may  be  close 
together  and  the  cloth  firm. 

The  treadles  which  are  connected  by  cords  to  the 
heddles  or  harness,  are  worked  by  the  feet  of  the 
weaver  and  move  the  heddles  up  and  down.  A 
**  shed,"  an  opening  through  which  the  shuttle  passes, 
is  formed  when  a  series  of  alternate  threads  is  lifted 
at  one  time  by  the  heddles. 

The  shuttle  holds  a  bobbin,  upon  which  the  weft 
thread  is  wound.  The  shuttle  is  passed  by  the  weaver 
back  and  forth  between  the  two  series  of  the  warp 
threads  made  by  the  shed. 

Power-Looms 
The  power-loom  was  invented  in  1785  by  the  Rev. 


32 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Edmund   Cartwright,  an  Englishman.     It  was  first 
used  in  the  United  States  in  1815. 

In  the  development  of  the  power-loom  the  hand- 
loom  was  used  as  a  basis  so  that  the  parts  of  the  loom 
and  the  principles  of  weaving  are  practically  the  same. 
So  many  contrivances  have  been  added  to  the  power- 
loom,  however,  that  operations  which  were  once  per- 
formed by  hand  are  now  accomplished  automatically. 
Among  these  are  devices  for  holding  a  number  of 
shuttles  at  the  side  of  the  loom  and  for  sending  each 
in  its  turn  across  the  warp  with  its  own  particular 
color;  empty  bobbins  are  automatically  replaced  by 
full  ones,  and  the  loom  is  made  to  stop  instantly  if  any 
thread  breaks.  Special  devices  are  provided  also  for 
the  weaving  of  complicated  patterns. 

Warping  or  Placing  Silk  Upon  the  Loom 

The  great  looms  of  our  modern  silk  factories  must 
be  prepared  for  weaving,  just  as  the  hand-looms  were, 
by  first  stretching  the  warp  threads  on  the  loom.  This 
process  is  called  "  warping  "  and  each  warp  thread  is 
called  an  "  end,"  while  the  crosswise  threads  are 
known  as  "  picks.'* 

Bolts  of  cloth  as  they  come  from  the  loom  vary 
greatly  in  length.  Each  individual  warp  thread  must 
be  as  long  as  the  finished  cloth. 

If  the  silk  is  to  be  very  wide  and  of  rather  fine 
quality,  from  3,000  to  6,000  ends  will  be  required  — 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXF^OSURE 


32 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Edmund  Cartwright,  an  Englishman.     It  was  first 
used  in  the  United  States  in  18 15. 

In  the  development  of  the  power-loom  the  hand- 
loom  was  used  as  a  basis  so  that  the  parts  of  the  loom 
and  the  principles  of  weaving  are  practically  the  same. 
So  many  contrivances  have  been  added  to  the  power- 
loom,  however,  that  operations  which  were  once  per- 
formed by  hand  are  now  accomplished  automatically. 
Among  these  are  devices  for  holding  a  number  of 
shuttles  at  the  side  of  the  loom  and  for  sending  each 
in  its  turn  across  the  warp  with  its  own  particular 
color;  empty  bobbins  are  automatically  replaced  by 
full  ones,  and  the  loom  is  made  to  stop  instantly  if  any 
thread  breaks.  Special  devices  are  provided  also  for 
the  weaving  of  complicated  patterns. 

Warping  or  Placing  Silk  Upon  the  Loom 

The  great  looms  of  our  modern  silk  factories  must 
be  prepared  for  weaving,  just  as  the  hand-looms  were, 
by  first  stretching  the  warp  threads  on  the  loom.  This 
process  is  called  "  warping  "  and  each  warp  thread  is 
called  an  "  end,"  while  the  crosswise  threads  are 
known  as  "  picks." 

Bolts  of  cloth  as  they  come  from  the  loom  vary 
greatly  in  length.  Each  individual  warp  thread  must 
be  as  long  as  the  finished  cloth. 

If  the  silk  is  to  be  very  wide  and  of  rather  fine 
quality,  from  3,000  to  6,000  ends  will  be  required  — 


WEAVING 


33 


that  is,  from  3,000  to  6,000  single  threads  lying  side 
by  side. 

Silks  which  are  eighteen  inches  or  more  in  width 
are  called  by  the  manufacturers  "  broad  silks,"  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  ribbons,  which  are  made  on  nar- 
row fabric  looms.  (See  Chapter  XVI  for  informa- 
tion on  ribbons.) 

In  the  preparation  of  the  warp  the  silk  is  wound  on 
spools,  one  for  each  warp  thread.  These  spools  are 
put  on  a  rack  or  creel.  The  thread  is  passed  from  the 
creel  through  a  coarse  comb  and  from  there  to  a  finer 
comb  or  reed.  Then  after  passing  through  a  still 
finer  reed  the  warp  threads  are  passed  on  and  wound 
around  the  warping  frame  which  is  a  large  wheel,  or 
reel,  eight  yards  in  circumference.  As  the  reel  re- 
volves it  draws  the  threads  from  the  spools  in  such  a 
way  as  to  cause  them  to  lie  parallel  upon  its  surface. 
These  reels  may  be  seen  in  the  view  of  the  warping 
room,  Figure  5. 

Beaming  Off 

From  the  frame  the  warp  is  wound  on  the  warp 
beam  of  the  loom,  which  is  afterward  placed  in  the 
back  of  the  loom.  Care  must  be  taken  in  this  opera- 
tion that  all  the  threads  are  kept  at  an  even  tension 
as  they  are  wound  on  the  warp  beam.  After  this  is  in 
place  in  the  loom  the  threads  must  be  drawn  through 
the  heddles  and  through  the  reed;  this  is  usually  a 


r  i* 


34 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


hand  operation.  Figure  6  shows  workers  passing  a 
single  warp  thread  through  the  heddle  eye  of  the 
harness. 

Movements  of  the  Loom 

Three  principles  underlie  the  art  of  hand-weaving 
and  they  are  also  most  important  in  modern  power- 
weaving  : 

1.  Shedding,    the    raising   of   part    of   the    warp 

threads   at   one   time   to    form   an   opening 
through  which  the  shuttle  passes. 

2.  Picking,  the  throwing  of  the  shuttle  back  and 

forth  through  the  shed. 

3.  Battening,  pushing  the  weft  threads  close  to- 

gether after  the  picking,  in  order  to  make  a 
firm  texture. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  movements  two  others 
should  be  mentioned: 

4.  Letting  off,  unrolling  the  warp  from  the  warp 

beam  to  furnish  thread  for  the  forming  of 
new  cloth. 

5.  Taking  up,  winding  the  cloth  which  has  just 

been  woven  onto  the  cloth  beam  to  make  room 
for  the  weaving  of  more  cloth. 


I 


Chapter  V 

SILK  WEAVES 

Varieties  of  Weaves 

The  fineness  of  the  silk  fiber  and  its  beautiful  luster 
have  made  it  suitable  for  many  varieties  of  weaves. 
Those  most  used  are: 

Plain 

Rib 

Twill 

Satin 

Gauze  or  leno 

Double-cloth 

Pile 

Pattern 

Plain  Weave 

The  plain  or  tabby  weave,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  the  simplest  and  is  used  for  the  largest  number  of 
materials.  Among  the  silks  made  with  this  weave  are 
China  silks,  India  silks,  and  taffetas. 

Two  harnesses  are  ordinarily  used  in  the  loom  in 
making  plain  weaves,  but  in  the  plain-weaving  of  silk 
four  or  more  are  often  used.     In  this  case  the  silk 

35 


36 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


yam  is  threaded  through  the  different  harnesses  so  that 
they  will  act  as  two.  Half  the  threads  or  all  the  odd- 
numbered  threads  are  raised  at  one  time  by  machinery, 
the  shuttle  carrying  the  weft  or  filling  is  sent  quickly 
through  the  shed  thus  formed,  and  the  weft  thread  is 
beaten  back  against  the  cloth ;  then  the  alternate  threads 
—  the  even-numbered  threads  —  are  raised  and  the 
shuttle  is  sent  back  again,  and  so  on. 

Rib  Weaves 

The  rib  weave  is  the  plain  weave  with  a  rib  or 
corded  effect  made  by  varying  the  size  of  the  threads 
of  either  warp  or  weft,  or  by  the  use  of  a  heavy  filling 
over  which  the  silk  threads  pass.  As  these  heavy  filling 
threads  are  often  cotton  or  worsted,  the  weave  of  the' 
materials  made  in  this  way  is  not  always  satisfactory, 
for  the  silk  threads  covering  the  filling  may  wear  off 
and  show  the  cotton  underneath. 

Some  of  the  materials  woven  with  the  rib  weave  are 
bengalines,  poplins,  grosgrains,  ottomans,  failles,  reps, 
moires,  and  others. 

Rib  weaves  are  of  two  kinds : 

1.  Warp  rib,  in  which  only  the  warp  yarns  which 

make  the  ribs  are  seen.  In  this  case  the  ribs 
run  across  the  fabric  and  are  formed  by  the 
weft  passing  twice  through  the  same  shed. 

2.  Filling  rib,  where  only  the  filling  yarns  which 

make  the  ribs  are  seen,  and  the  ribs  run 


II 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


36 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


yarn  is  threaded  through  the  different  harnesses  so  that 
they  will  act  as  two.  Half  the  threads  or  all  the  odd- 
numbered  threads  are  raised  at  one  time  by  machinery, 
the  shuttle  carrying  the  weft  or  filling  is  sent  quickly 
through  the  shed  thus  formed,  and  the  weft  thread  is 
beaten  back  against  the  cloth ;  then  the  alternate  threads 
—  the  even-numbered  threads  —  are  raised  and  the 
shuttle  is  sent  back  again,  and  so  on. 

Rib  Weaves 

The  rib  weave  is  the  plain  weave  with  a  rib  or 
corded  effect  made  by  varying  the  size  of  the  threads 
of  either  warp  or  weft,  or  by  the  use  of  a  heavy  filling 
over  which  the  silk  threads  pass.  As  these  heavy  filling 
threads  are  often  cotton  or  worsted,  the  weave  of  the 
materials  made  in  this  way  is  not  always  satisfactory, 
for  the  silk  threads  covering  the  filling  may  wear  off 
and  show  the  cotton  underneath. 

Some  of  the  materials  woven  with  the  rib  weave  are 
bengalines,  poplins,  grosgrains,  ottomans,  failles,  reps, 
moires,  and  others. 

Rib  weaves  are  of  two  kinds : 

1.  Warp  rib,  in  which  only  the  warp  yarns  which 

make  the  ribs  are  seen.  In  this  case  the  ribs 
run  across  the  fabric  and  are  formed  by  the 
weft  passing  twice  through  the  same  shed. 

2.  Filling  rib,  where  only  the  filling  yarns  which 

make  the  ribs  are  seen,  and  the  ribs  run 


SILK  WEAVES 


37 


lengthwise  of  the  fabric.  The  ribs  are 
formed  by  passing  the  filling  over  two 
and  under  two  warp  threads,  passing  once 
through  each  shed. 

Twill  Weave 

The  twill  weave  is  known  by  the  diagonal  lines 
which  run  across  the  cloth.  Some  of  the  silk  mate- 
rials made  with  the  twill  weave  are  plain  foulards, 
surahs,  or  silk  serges. 

The  diagonal  lines  are  formed  by  the  way  in  which 
the  filling  thread  intersects  the  warp.  Each  filling 
yarn  passes  over  one  and  under  two  or  more  warp 
threads,  but  not  the  same  set  of  threads  each  time. 
Each  row  begins  one  thread  in  advance  of  the  preced- 
ing row ;  the  result  is  that  diagonal  ridges  are  formed. 

Satin  Weave 

In  the  satin  weave  the  weft  passes  in  succession  over 
one  thread  and  under  a  group  of  warp  threads,  a  com- 
mon number  being  seven.  Each  time  the  weft  crosses 
the  warp  it  passes  over  and  under  different  warp 
threads  until  it  has  been  back  and  forth  seven  times ; 
then  the  first  row  is  repeated  and  each  row  of  this  next 
group  of  seven  repeats  the  first  group  and  so  on. 

In  this  way  nearly  all  the  warp  is  brought  to  the  sur- 
face and  nearly  all  the  weft  is  left  underneath,  and 
the  ties,  as  they  are  called,  (that  is,  the  single  threads 


38 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


crossed  by  the  weft),  come  at  a  different  place  each 
time  and  are  hardly  perceptible  so  that  the  surface  has 
the  smooth  and  shiny  appearance  characteristic  of 
satin.  After  the  finishing  process  of  calendering,  or 
passing  between  heated  rollers,  this  surface  reflects  the 
rays  of  light  completely. 

Satins  are  not  always  woven  on  seven  or  eight 
threads ;  there  may  be  almost  any  number  from  five  to 
twenty-four,  but  seven  threads,  the  repetition  coming 
in  the  eighth  row,  seem  to  be  used  most  commonly. 
The  number  of  threads  indicates  the  number  of  hed- 
dles  required  in  the  loom,  and  satins  are  designated  as 
five-heddle  or  eight-heddle  satin,  etc. 

In  weaving  satins  the  wrong  side  of  the  satin  is  on 
top  and  the  face  down.  This  makes  the  process  of 
weaving  easier,  as  only  one  heddle  need  be  raised  for 
the  filling  thread  to  pass  through ;  whereas  if  the  fabric 
were  woven  with  the  face  up  eight,  ten,  twelve,  or  more  * 
heddles  or  shafts  would  have  to  be  raised,  according 
to  the  number  of  warp  threads  to  be  skipped. 

Although  there  is  no  record  to  show  when  satin 
weaving  was  invented,  the  Chinese  were  doubtless  the 
first  to  devise  this  method.  It  is  particularly  adapted 
to  the  silk  fiber,  because  the  luster  of  the  silk  shows 
much  more  than  in  plain  weaves. 

The  satin  weave  is  the  foundation  of  all  modern 
pattern-weaving,  as  the  satin  ground  shows  to  ad- 


SILK  WEAVES 


39 


vantage   the   silk   and   gold   embroideries   which   the 
Chinese  have  always  been  so  skilful  in  working. 

Gauze  or  Leno  Weave 

Gauze  or  leno  weaving  produces  an  openwork  effect, 
such  as  is  found  in  grenadine  and  marquisette,  which 
are  firm  and  yet  at  the  same  time  thin  and  open 
fabrics. 

A  special  loom  carrying  two  warp  threads  is  required. 
The  regular  warp  thread  is  placed  as  usual.  The 
extra  warp  thread  twists  to  the  right  and  left  around 
the  regular  thread.  The  filling  threads  pass  over  and 
under  the  two  warp  threads,  binding  them  tightly 
together  and  forming  a  wavy  appearance. 

Double-Cloth  Weaves 

Double-cloth  weaving  is  the  process  of  weaving  two 
cloths  at  the  same  time  to  form  one  fabric.  It  is  found 
in  broad  silks  or  ribbons  where: 

1.  Both  sides  are  of  different  color. 

2.  One  side  is  velvet  and  the  reverse  side  satin. 

3.  The  figures  are  different  on  each  side. 

The  weave  is  also  used  in  silks  which  are  made 
heavier  by  being  backed,  that  is,  the  back  may  be  of 
wool  and  the  face  of  silk  or  satin;  and  in  cravats  or 
neckties  which  are  made  in  tubular  form. 

I.  The  two  cloths  may  be  woven  separately  and 


I 


40 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


joined  only  at  the  two  edges;  in  this  case  a  tubular 
fabric  is  formed,  such  as  is  used  for  men's  neckties  or 
cravats. 

2.  The  two  cloths  may  be  woven  in  two  separate 
pieces,  each  having  its  own  warp  and  filling,  but  the 
threads  are  interlaced  at  certain  regular  intervals,  fas- 
tening the  two  pieces  together  to  form  one  material. 
This  is  the  method  used  for  double-faced  ribbons  and 
silk  materials  which  are  backed  to  make  them  heavier 
and  stronger. 

Pile  Weave 

Velvets  and  plushes  are  known  as  pile  fabrics. 
There  are  two  methods  by  which  the  pile  may  be  pro- 
duced. 

I.  Velvets  are  usually  woven  by  the  double-cloth 
method  —  two  pieces  of  cloth  face  to  face.  There  are 
two  sets  of  warp  threads;  each  warp  has  its  own  weft, 
and  in  addition  extra  pile  threads  pass  up  and  down 
from  one  set  of  warp  threads  to  the  other.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  two  sets  of  warp  threads  determines 
the  length  of  the  pile. 

Two  shuttles  go  back  and  forth  across  the  cloth, 
carrying  the  filling  for  each  set  of  warp  threads  and 
at  the  same  time  binding  in  the  pile  threads.  As  the 
weaving  proceeds,  a  knife  travels  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  shuttles  and  a  short  distance  from  them,  cutting 
the  pile   threads  between   the   two  pieces  of  cloth. 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EX.dOSURE 


40 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


joined  only  at  the  two  edges;  in  this  case  a  tubular 
fabric  is  formed,  such  as  is  used  for  men's  neckties  or 
cravats. 

2.  The  two  cloths  may  be  woven  in  two  separate 
pieces,  each  having  its  own  warp  and  filling,  but  the 
threads  are  interlaced  at  certain  regular  intervals,  fas- 
tening the  two  pieces  together  to  form  one  material. 
This  is  the  method  used  for  double-faced  ribbons  and 
silk  materials  which  are  backed  to  make  them  heavier 
and  stronger. 

Pile  Weave 

Velvets  and  plushes  are  known  as  pile  fabrics. 
There  are  two  methods  by  which  the  pile  may  be  pro- 
duced. 

I.  Velvets  are  usually  woven  by  the  double-cloth 
method  —  two  pieces  of  cloth  face  to  face.  There  are 
two  sets  of  warp  threads;  each  warp  has  its  own  weft, 
and  in  addition  extra  pile  threads  pass  up  and  down 
from  one  set  of  warp  threads  to  the  other.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  two  sets  of  warp  threads  determines 
the  length  of  the  pile. 

Two  shuttles  go  back  and  forth  across  the  cloth, 
carrying  the  filling  for  each  set  of  warp  threads  and 
at  the  same  time  binding  in  the  pile  threads.  As  the 
weaving  proceeds,  a  knife  travels  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  shuttles  and  a  short  distance  from  them,  cutting 
the  pile   threads  between  the  two  pieces  of  cloth. 


i 


SILK  WEAVES 


41 


These  threads  after  being  cut  stand  up  straight  and 
form  the  pile  or  nap  of  the  velvet.  Two  pieces  of  vel- 
vet are  thus  woven  at  the  same  time.  As  they  come 
from  the  loom  the  two  pieces  are  wound  on  separate 
beams. 

2.  Another  method  of  weaving  velvet,  which  is  not 
much  used  now,  is  done  with  two  sets  of  warp  threads, 
one  set  being  for  the  pile.  The  pile  is  raised  by  in- 
serting wires  into  the  shed  under  the  pile  thread  and 
across  the  warp  threads.  When  the  wires  are  pulled 
out,  a  small  knife  on  the  top  of  the  wire  cuts  the  pile 
loop,  leaving  the  ends  standing  straight,  or  in  the  case 
of  uncut  velvet,  the  wires  have  no  knife  on  top  but 
are  pulled  out,  leaving  the  loops  uncut.  The  inserting 
of  the  wires  and  the  pulling  out  of  the  same  is  all  done 
by  machinery. 

In  this  method  one  piece  of  cloth  is  woven  at  a  time 
and  the  loops  forming  the  velvet  are  on  top  and  in 
sight.  The  warp  and  filling  threads  may  be  either  of 
silk  or  cotton.  These  form  the  back  of  the  velvet. 
The  pile  thread  which  forms  the  face  of  the  velvet  is 
always  of  silk. 

3.  Another  method  is  used  in  making  corduroy  and 
velveteen  or  cotton  velvets.  Two  sets  of  filling  threads 
are  used  to  one  of  warp.  The  extra  filling  thread 
forms  the  pile  on  the  face  of  the  cloth,  and  as  the  weav- 
ing proceeds  it  is  cut  by  hand  with  a  special  kind  of 
knife  along  the  length  of  the  material. 


I 


42 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


The  Process  of  Pattern- Weaving 

When  designs  or  figures  are  wrought  into  a  fabric 
while  it  is  being  woven,  the  process  is  called  pattern- 
weaving. 

Whether  the  warp  is  placed  in  a  simple  frame  and 
the  weft  put  in  by  patient  hand-labor,  or  whether  the 
work  is  done  on  a  complicated  loom  so  constructed 
that  the  warp  threads  are  lifted  automatically  for  the 
weft  or  filling  to  intersect,  the  principle  is  the  same. 
Even  in  the  most  intricate  patterns  the  effect  is  ob- 
tained by  only  the  warp  and  filling  threads  intersecting 
each  other  at  intervals  which  differ  according  to  the 
design. 

A  simple  pattern  may  be  made  by  striping  the  warp, 
that  is,  putting  in  threads  of  different  colors  when  warp- 
ing the  loom,  so  that  when  the  filling  is  carried  across, 
the  contrasting  colors  will  appear  at  regular  intervals. 
Still  other  effects  may  be  obtained  by  weaving  the  fill- 
ing also  in  stripes.  Some  of  the  old  Egyptian  patterns 
were  made  by  striping  the  weft  or  filling.  In  other 
cases  gold,  silver,  and  brightly  colored  threads  were 
added  to  the  weft  at  certain  intervals. 

Antiquity  of  Pattern- Weaving 

Pattern-weaving  by  mechanical  means  seems  to  have 
been  unknown  to  all  the  ancients  except  the  Chinese. 
The  Egyptians  had  some  methods  of  weaving  in  rich, 
colored  patterns  which  are  unknown  to  us,  though 


SILK  WEAVES 


43 


examples  of  their  workmanship  are  to  be  found  in 
museums  today.  They  also  applied  designs  with  the 
needle  or  by  stenciling  the  fabric  after  it  was  woven. 
Their  materials  were  elaborately  decorated,  as  were 
those  of  Babylonia  and  eastern  countries,  but  we  have 
no  evidence  of  a  mechanical  contrivance  to  produce 
patterns. 

The  Draw-Loom 

The  origin  of  the  draw-loom  is  not  known,  but  the 
earliest  record  of  it  comes  from  China.  As  silk  was 
first  woven  in  China  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  loom 
for  pattern-weaving  was  invented  there  and  passed, 
with  silk  manufacture,  to  Western  Asia  and  then  into 
Europe. 

The  principle  of  the  draw-loom  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  most  elaborate  Jacquard  loom  of  the  present 
day.  It  simply  provides  a  mechanical  contrivance  for 
the  irregular  lifting  of  the  warp  threads. 

In  the  draw-loom  vertical  cords  were  attached  to 
certain  threads  of  warp  so  that  they  might  be  drawn 
up  separately  according  to  the  pattern  which  was  to  be 
woven  into  the  fabric. 

The  loom  had  two  mountings :  one,  the  usual  shaft- 
mounting  needed  to  form  the  cloth,  and  the  other  a 
harness,  called  the  "  draw  boy  mounting/'  by  which 
the  separate  threads  were  lifted  to  form  the  patterns. 
The  old-fashioned  draw-loom  also  required  two  op- 


44 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


erators:  one  to  attend  to  the  throwing  of  the  shuttle 
across  the  warp,  and  the  other,  called  the  draw  boy, 
to  draw  up  the  threads  as  previously  arranged.  The 
draw  boy  had  a  position  near  the  top  of  the  loom,  from 
which  he  could  manipulate  the  harness  assigned  to  him. 

Improvements  upon  the  Draw-Loom 

The  first  improvement  upon  the  loom  was  made  in 
1604  by  M.  Simblot,  a  Frenchman,  who  connected  a 
separate  series  of  cords,  called  the  "  simple/'  with  the 
neck  of  the  harness.  This  arrangement  enabled  the 
draw  boy  to  handle  the  cords  while  standing  at  the  side 
of  the  loom. 

During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  in 
both  England  and  France  a  number  of  patents  were 
taken  out  for  devices  by  which  the  threads  could  be 
manipulated  by  the  weaver  without  the  aid  of  the  draw 
boy.  As  early  as  1687  Joseph  Mason  invented  a 
"draw  boy  engine"  which  could  be  worked  by  the 
weaver. 

In  1728  M.  Falcon  made  a  chain  of  perforated  cards 
through  which  the  hooks  lifting  the  warp  threads 
would  need  to  pass,  thus  controlling  the  design  auto- 
matically, and  in  1756  M.  Vaucanson  made  a  cylinder 
over  which  a  perforated  paper  band  was  passed,  secur- 
ing the  same  result.  This  system  of  controlling  the 
threads  not  only  made  the  draw  boy  unnecessary,  but 
reduced  the  number  of  harnesses  and  greatly  increased 


SILK  WEAVES  45 

the  range  of  patterns  which  might  be  produced  If 
patterns  are  woven  on  the  draw-loom  more  harnesses 
are  required,  and  as  one  loom  cannot  carry  more  than 
about  thirty  harnesses,  only  small  patterns  can  be 
woven. 

The  various  inventions  of  the  eighteenth  century 
remamed  meffective,  however,  because  weavers  could 
not  use  them.  It  was  M.  Jacquard  who  combined  the 
mventions  and  secured  their  practical  use.  The  mod- 
ern pattern-weaving  loom  is  therefore  called  bv  his 
name.  ^ 

Jacquard 

Joseph  Marie  Jacquard  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1782 
It  is  impossible  to  say  how  much  of  his  work  was  orig- 
inal and  how  greatly  he  was  indebted  to  his  prede- 
cessors, but  he  succeeded  in  perfecting  a  practicable 
machine  which  was  adopted  by  the  weavers 

His  first  attempt  to  use  the  machine  was  in  1804 

when  he  introduced  it  into  his  own  factory.     The  silk 

weavers  were  opposed  to  him,  and  his  machine  was 

taken  to  the  public  square  of  Lyons  and  burned.     On 

that  same  square  today  a  statue  is  erected  to  his  mem- 
ory. 

In  spite  of  persecutions,  the  machine  was  later  set 
up  again  in  France  and  in  1820  some  were  secretly  set 
up  in  England  At  first  they  were  used  chiefly  as 
substitutes  for  the  draw  boys  on  the  hamess-looms 


i3 


46 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


During  the  nineteenth  century  Jacquard's  invention 
was  considerably  altered  by  British  mechanics  and  was 
adapted  to  the  power-looms.  At  present  its  use  is 
general  over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  textile  industry. 

The  Jacquard  Loom 

The  patterns  which  can  be  woven  on  the  ordinary 
harness-looms  are  limited  in  number,  but  the  Jacquard 
loom  admits  of  four  hundred  or  more  changes  in  pat- 
tern. The  cost  of  working  on  the  Jacquard  loom  is 
greater  than  on  the  plain  looms,  but  the  results  are  so 
varied  and  satisfactory,  that  its  use  is  general  through- 
out the  textile  industry,  especially  in  the  weaving  of 
silks,  velvets,  and  fine  laces. 

The  principal  difference  between  the  Jacquard  loom 
and  the  plain  harness-loom  is  that  the  shedding  in  the 
former  is  controlled  from  above  the  harness,  whereas 
the  shedding  in  the  harness-loom  is  effected  by  treadles 
worked  from  below.  By  means  of  the  Jacquard  at- 
tachment to  the  loom,  each  one  of  the  hundreds  or 
even  thousands  of  warp  threads  may  be  operated  sepa- 
rately, without  disturbing  any  other  thread  on  the 
loom,  and  they  may  be  lifted  in  the  right  order  for  the 
formation  of  any  design. 

This  wonderful  invention  governs  all  the  operations 
of  the  loom.  It  makes  the  pattern  and  ground  of  the 
fabric,  it  changes  in  proper  succession  the  shuttles 
carrying  the  different  colors  of  the  design,  and  it  ad- 


SILK  WEAVES 


47 


justs  many  other  details  —  all  by  means  of  holes  which 
have  been  punched  in  certain  order  in  a  set  of  cards. 

Mechanism  of  the  Loom 

The  attention  of  the  visitor  in  the  weaving  room  will 
be  attracted  by  the  almost  countless  cords  which  rise 
perpendicularly  from  the  warp  threads  in  the  loom  to 
the  attachment  overhead.  Near  the  top  of  the  loom 
is  a  series  of  perforated  cards,  tied  together  at 
the  ends.  These  cards  are  in  constant  motion  and 
by  means  of  them  the  design  is  woven  into  the 
cloth. 

The  mechanism  which  brings  the  cards  in  contact 
with  the  threads  is  most  ingenious  and  rather  com- 
plicated. It  may  be  easily  understood  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  diagram,  Figure  8,  in  connection  with  the 
following  explanation  of  the  essential  parts  of  the  ma- 
chine and  their  relation  to  one  another. 

Each  cord  (A)  is  fastened  at  its  upper  end  to  a 
hook  (B).  This  set  of  hooks  controls  each  individual 
warp  thread  by  raising  the  harness  cords.  These  cords 
have  "mail  eyes"  (C)  near  the  lower  ends,  through 
which  the  warp  threads  pass,  so  that  when  the  cords 
are  drawn  up  the  warp  threads  rise  also.  The  cords 
are  pulled  back  into  place  by  v^eights  called  lingoes 
(D). 

The  griffe,  or  hook  lifter  (E),  consists  of  a  series 
of  bars  or  blades  which  lift  the  sheds.     The  hooks 


SILK  WEAVES 


From  "  Textiles,"  by  Woolman  and  McC.owan  (The  MacMillan 
Company),  by  courtesy  of  the  authors  and  publishers 

Figure  8.    Detail  of  Jacquard  Loom 

A~Neck  Cords.  B— Hooks.  C— Mail  Eye.  D— Weights  or  Lingoes.  E— 
Gnffe  or  Hook  Lifter.  F—Needles.  G— Spring  Box.  H— Needle  Eye. 
I — Cyhnder.     K — Catch  of  Needles. 

48 


49 


work  vertically  and  have  a  catch  (K)  at  one  end  which 
passes  over  the  griflFe. 

The  needles  (F)  work  horizontally.  They  are  bent 
back  at  one  end  so  that  each  needle  may  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  spring  in  the  spring  box  (G).  There  is 
an  eye  in  the  center  of  each  needle  so  that  the  hooks 
may  pass  through.     The  needles  control  the  hooks. 

The  hollow,  four-sided,  revolving  cylinder  (I) 
makes  one  quarter  of  a  revolution  with  each  pick  of  the 
pattern,  thus  placing  one  of  its  four  sides  in  contact 
with  the  needle. 

The  cards  pass  over  the  cylinder,  coming  in  place 
alternately  and  showing  the  pattern  by  pressing  back 
those  needles  not  needed  to  raise  the  shed. 

The  Cards 

The  use  of  the  cards  may  be  better  understood  by 
comparing  them  to  the  perforated  paper  roll  of  the 
mechanical  piano-player.  Just  as  the  tune  played  on 
the  piano  is  cut  in  the  strip  of  paper,  so  the  design  to 
be  woven  in  the  loom  must  be  cut  in  the  series  of  cards 
of  the  Jacquard  machine. 

The  design  for  the  woven  silk  is  first  drawn  in  color 
on  paper  which  is  ruled  for  the  purpose.  The  ruling 
is  in  straight,  vertical,  and  horizontal  lines  across  the 
paper,  forming  small  squares;  the  pattern  is  carefully 
planned  to  fit  into  certain  numbers  of  squares,  like  de- 
signs for  cross-stitch  embroidery. 


so 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


The  paper  on  which  the  design  has  been  drawn  is 
placed  in  an  upright  position  on  the  machine  used  for 
the  perforation  of  the  cards.     Only  about  an  inch  of 
the  pattern  shows  at  a  time,  and  the  line  to  be  cut  is 
indicated  by  a  scale  bar  placed  across  the  face  of  the 
design ;  the  spaces  on  this  scale  bar  are  numbered  from 
left  to  right  and  the  numbers  on  these  spaces  apply  to 
the  warp  threads  in  the  loom,  the  cards  in  the  harness, 
and  their  connecting  hooks,  rods,  etc.,  as  well  as  the 
corresponding  spaces  in  the  pattern  card.     Each  card 
controls  the  motion  of  the  loom  for  one  pick,  that  is, 
the  raising  of  certain  warp  threads  while  the  shuttle 
passes  once  through  the  threads  which  form  the  shed. 
The  card  cutter  places  a  card  in  the  machine  and 
by  pressing  certain  knobs,  holes  are  perforated  in  the 
cards ;  these  holes  correspond  to  the  spaces  occupied  by 
the  design  on  the  line  which  he  is  copying.     The  scale 
bar  is  then  adjusted  for  the  next  line  of  warps  and 
the  next  card  is  cut,  and  so  on  until  cards  have  been 
cut  for  each  line  of  the  design.     The  cards  are  then 
laced  together  in  their  right  order  to  form  an  endless 
chain.     In  weaving  an  elaborate  pattern  the  expense 
is  increased  by  the  use  of  many  thousands  of  these 
cards. 

Varieties  of  the  Jacquard  Loom 

There  are  many  varieties  of  Jacquard  looms  and 
these  may  vary  in  different  particulars.     Some  aim  at 


SILK  WEAVES 


51 


economy  in  cards,  others  at  reducing  the  number  of 
needles  and  hooks.  Modern  ingenuity  is  constantly  at 
work  to  find  better  and  less  expensive  methods.  But 
after  all,  the  essential  principles  of  the  machine  remain 
practically  the  same.  If  the  warp  threads  are  to  be 
lifted,  then  some  form  of  hook  or  cord,  or  some  simi- 
lar device  must  be  used,  which  in  turn  must  be  directed 
by  either  a  card  cylinder  or  some  other  appliance 
equally  effective. 

Figured  Velvets 

Figured  velvets  are  also  made  on  the  Jacquard  loom. 
Only  such  threads  of  the  pile  are  lifted  for  the  inser- 
tion of  the  wires  (see  "  Pile  Weave  "  above)  as  are 
needed  to  form  the  figure,  and  other  threads  are  left 
to  be  woven  into  the  ground. 

As  the  pile  threads  are  used  in  different  proportions, 
they  cannot  all  be  placed  on  one  warp  beam,  but  are 
wound  each  on  its  own  bobbin.  These  warp  bobbins 
are  spread  on  frames,  each  bobbin  being  separately 
weighted  and  each  acting  independently,  so  that  the 
number  of  threads  used  varies  with  the  figure. 

When  pile  figures  appear  on  otherwise  plain  fabrics, 
the  figures  are  generally  woven  in  a  sort  of  a  face 
filling  effect  and  then  cut  with  a  knife  as  already  de- 
scribed. 


DYEING  SILK 


53 


Chapter  VI 
DYEING  SILK 

Classes  of  Dyed  Silk 

The  processes  of  throwing  (see  Chapter  III)  and 
dyeing  are  usually  carried  on  in  different  mills  by 
entirely  different  concerns,  but  some  of  the  larger  mills 
complete  all  the  processes. 

Dyed  silks  are  divided  into  two  classes : 

1.  Yam-dyed  goods,  which  have  been  dyed  in  the 

skein  before  weaving. 

2.  Piece-dyed  goods,  which  are  dyed  after  the  silk 

has  been  woven  into  cloth. 

Yarn-Dyeing  Processes 
The  processes  in  yarn-dyeing  are: 

Boiling-off 
Weighting 
Dyeing 

Boiling-Off,  Scouring,  or  Stripping 

The  raw  silk  is  thrown  "  in  the  gum ''  and  the  gum 
IS  now  removed  by  the  boiling-off  process.    The  skeins 

52 


of  silk  are  immersed  in  boiling  soap  suds  made  from 
olive  oil  soap.  This  process  softens  and  removes  the 
gum  and  leaves  the  silk  soft.  As  much  of  the  color 
is  in  the  gum,  the  silk,  which  may  have  been  yellow, 
green,  or  white,  comes  out  white  and  glossy.  The 
hardness  of  the  gum  varies  in  different  kinds  of  silk; 
that  from  Japan  has  the  softest  gum  of  all. 

By  one  process  of  making  gauze  or  crepe  materials 
the  silk  is  not  boiled  off  or  scoured.  The  gum  is  left 
in,  as  it  is  then  easier  to  give  the  required  hard  twist 
to  the  silk,  and  the  removal  of  the  gum  later  gives  the 
desired  crinkled  effect.  For  dyeing  with  certain  colors 
the  silk  is  half -scoured.  Crepe  is  also  made  by  varia- 
tions in  the  weaving  process. 

Process  of  Boiling  Off 

The  skeins  of  silk  as  they  come  from  the  throwing 
mill  are  opened,  a  stick  is  passed  through  a  number  of 
them,  and  the  ends  of  the  stick  are  rested  upon  the 
sides  of  a  vat  of  boiling  soapy  water.  The  skeins 
hang  from  the  stick.  In  this  way  there  is  no  danger 
that  skeins  may  become  tangled.  They  are  constantly 
moved  over  the  stick  so  that  all  parts  of  the  silk  may 
He  in  the  boiling  water  for  the  same  length  of  time. 
This  process  not  only  removes  the  gum  but  puts  the 
silk  in  a  better  condition  to  receive  weighting,  which 
is  usually  the  next  process,  though  some  silks  are  un- 
weighted.    After  the  skeins  have  stayed  in  the  bath 


II 


54 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


from  a  half-hour  to  three  hours,  they  are  taken  out  and 
dried  or  whizzed  in  a  hydroextractor  which  removes 
all  the  moisture  in  a  very  short  time.  If  the  silk  is  to 
be  "pure  dye/'  that  is,  if  nothing  but  the  color  is  to  be 
added,  it  is  dyed  next  and  the  silk  is  then  washed, 
dried,  stretched,  and  finished. 

Weighting  of  Silk 

The  removal  of  the  gum  from  either  raw  or  spun 
silk  in  the  boiling-off  process  reduces  its  weight  about 
25  per  cent  and  leaves  it  very  soft  and  light.  One 
pound  (i6  oz.)  of  silk  will  weigh  12  oz.  after  boiling- 
oif.  As  silk  is  sold  by  weight  this  loss  is  a  serious  one 
to  the  manufacturer,  and  it  is  perfectly  legitimate  to 
make  up  the  25  per  cent.  Sugar  of  lead,  which  is 
harmless,  was  once  used;  today  salts  of  tin  and  iron 
in  solution  and  other  injurious  substances  are  used, 
and  often  much  more  than  the  original  loss  of  25  per 
cent  is  added.  A  pound  of  silk  can  be  made  to  weigh 
40  or  50  oz.  or  even  more,  and  the  manufacturer  gains 
by  this  process  and  puts  on  the  market  an  inferior 
quality  of  silk.  The  result  is  that  while  a  cheap  silk 
can  be  made,  it  will  not  wear  well  and  soon  splits  and 
cracks  under  its  weight  of  tin  and  iron. 

This  weighting  is  usually  done  before  the  silk  is 
dyed,  but  it  may  be  put  into  the  dye  bath.  A  manu- 
facturer who  wishes  to  deceive  can  add  as  much  as  300 
per  cent  extra  weight  by  the  use  of  chemicals. 


DYEING  SILK 


55 


Weighting  Materials 

By  using  different  chemicals,  silks  of  all  colors  can 
be  weighted.  Some  of  the  weighting  materials  are 
salts  of  tin,  iron,  sodium,  magnesium,  chromium,  and 
barium.  Sugar,  gelatin,  glycerin,  glucose,  and  paraf- 
fin are  also  employed.  Those  most  commonly  used 
are  tannin,  tin,  iron,  and  sugar. 

Process  of  Weighting  with  Tin 

The  silk  is  put  into  a  bath  of  salts  of  tin;  this  treat- 
ment does  not  affect  its  color.  After  remaining  in 
this  bath  for  several  hours  it  is  taken  out,  washed,  and 
dried.  It  is  then  passed  through  a  solution  of  phos- 
phate of  soda,  again  washed,  and  dried.  From  this 
process  the  silk  has  gained  about  2V2  oz.  to  the  pound 
of  raw  silk.  The  silk  may  be  passed  several  times  in 
succession  through  these  two  baths ;  each  time  it  gains 
in  weight. 

Next  a  bath  of  silicate  of  soda  is  given;  this  adds  a 
little  to  the  weight  and  is  claimed  to  add  luster  and 
strength  to  the  goods.  A  final  washing  is  given  the 
silk  and  it  is  ready  for  the  dye  bath.  Dark-colored 
silks  can  stand  more  weighting  than  light-colored  ones, 
and  salts  of  iron  are  used  for  dark  silks,  while  salts  of 
tin  are  used  for  light-colored  silks. 

Results  of  Weighting 
Weighting  which  is  not  properly  done  weakens  the 


56 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


strength  of  the  fiber  so  that  the  silk  will  not  wear  well. 
Many  people  cannot  understand  why  a  silk  petticoat 
is  in  shreds  when  it  has  been  worn  very  little.  Heav- 
ily weighted  silk  cracks  and  splits  after  a  short  time 
whether  it  is  used  or  not.  Perspiration  often  unites 
with  the  chemicals  in  the  silk  and  causes  it  to  fall 
apart. 

Silks  made  many  years  ago  before  there  was  such 
excessive  weighting  would  wear  for  years  and  many 
an  heirloom  gown  is  in  better  condition  than  a  last 
year's  dress. 

Wild  Silk 

The  wild  silks  (tussah)  are  difficult  to  dye.  For  this 
reason  the  genuine  wild  silks  are  usually  sold  in  the 
natural  unbleached  color. 

Classification  of  Dyes 
Textile  fibers  are  divided  into  two  large  classes: 

1.  Fibers  of  vegetable  origin,  as  cotton,  linen,  jute, 

etc. 

2.  Fibers  of  animal  origin,  as  wool,  silk,  fur,  etc. 
Colors  that  will  dye  the  animal  fibers  will  not  dye 

the  vegetable  fibers,  and  vice  versa.  Colors  that  will 
dye  one  animal  fiber  will  dye  all  other  animal  fibers, 
yet  today  there  are  dyes  for  each  fiber,  whether  animal 
or  vegetable,  as  silk  dyes,  wool  dyes,  cotton  dyes,  linen 
dyes.    This  is  sometimes  an  advantage  in  dyeing 


DYEING  SILK 


57 


mixed  silk  and  cotton  goods;  the  silk  takes  the  dye, 
the  cotton  does  not,  and  the  result  is  that  if  a  white 
stripe  of  cotton  thread  is  put  in  a  silk  fabric  the  cotton 
will  remain  white  after  the  silk  has  been  dyed. 

Silk  was  originally  dyed  by  means  of  vegetable  col- 
oring matter,  such  as  logwood.  Brazilwood,  and  mad- 
der; and  animal  products,  such  as  cochineal. 

Modern  Dye  Stuffs 
There  are  two  classes  of  dye  stuffs  for  silk : 

1.  Basic  or  substantive  colors 

2.  Acid  colors 

Basic  or  substantive  colors  will  combine  directly 
with  the  silk  fabrics  without  the  aid  of  a  mordant. 
Acid  colors  will  not  combine  with  the  fiber  unless  a 
mordant  is  used.  The  acid  colors  are  now  widely  used 
because  most  of  the  silk  is  weighted  with  tin,  which 
acts  as  a  partial  mordant  for  the  acid  colors. 

Mordants 

A  mordant  is  a  chemical  substance  which  unites  with 
the  fiber  and  with  the  coloring  matter,  fixing  the  color- 
ing matter  on  the  fiber.  Silk  is  usually  dyed  in  a 
bath  containing  the  "boiled-off  liquor"  from  the 
scouring  in  which  the  gum  was  boiled  out.  A  little  • 
acetic  acid  is  put  into  the  bath  to  neutralize  it. 


58 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Yarn-Dyeing 

In  the  dye  room  are  long  vats  filled  with  the  steam- 
ing hot  dye  mixture  which  has  been  prepared  accord- 
ing to  the  desired  color.  The  skeins  of  silk  yarn  are 
immersed  by  being  suspended  over  sticks  which  rest 
on  the  edge  of  the  dye  vat.  These  sticks  and  skeins 
are  moved  constantly  so  that  the  dye  may  penetrate 
every  part.  The  depth  of  color  depends  upon  the 
length  of  time  the  silk  is  in  the  dye.  After  it  is  taken 
from  the  vat  it  is  immersed  in  water  to  remove  the 
loose  color  and  then  dried. 

Figure  9  shows  the  process  of  yam-dyeing. 

If  a  light-colored  silk  is  required,  bleaching  must 
precede  the  dyeing.  The  skeins  of  silk  are  either 
bleached  with  peroxide  or  put  in  a  sulphur  chamber. 

Stretching 

After  the  silk  is  dyed  it  may  be  placed  over  a  peg 
in  the  wall  and  twisted,  pulled,  and  stretched  until  it  is 
soft  and  glossy.  A  still  greater  luster  may  be  ob- 
tained by  stretching  the  silk  by  machine.  In  this 
process  the  skeins  of  silk  are  laid  between  damp  cloths. 
iWhen  the  silk  has  become  thoroughly  moistened  the 
skeins  are  placed  over  two  steel  arms,  which  are  then 
screwed  apart,  thus  stretching  the  silk  and  holding  it 
tight.  Dry  heat  is  then  applied.  Although  this 
process  diminishes  the  elasticity  of  the  silk  it  adds 
much  to  its  brilliancy  and  luster. 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


58 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Yarn-Dyeing 

In  the  dye  room  are  long  vats  filled  with  the  steam- 
ing hot  dye  mixture  which  has  been  prepared  accord- 
ing to  the  desired  color.  The  skeins  of  silk  yarn  are 
immersed  by  being  suspended  over  sticks  which  rest 
on  the  edge  of  the  dye  vat.  These  sticks  and  skeins 
are  moved  constantly  so  that  the  dye  may  penetrate 
every  part.  The  depth  of  color  depends  upon  the 
length  of  time  the  silk  is  in  the  dye.  After  it  is  taken 
from  the  vat  it  is  immersed  in  water  to  remove  the 
loose  color  and  then  dried. 

Figure  9  shows  the  process  of  yarn-dyeing. 

If  a  light-colored  silk  is  required,  bleaching  must 
precede  the  dyeing.  The  skeins  of  silk  are  either 
bleached  with  peroxide  or  put  in  a  sulphur  chamber. 

Stretching 

After  the  silk  is  dyed  it  may  be  placed  over  a  peg 
in  the  wall  and  twisted,  pulled,  and  stretched  until  it  is 
soft  and  glossy.  A  still  greater  luster  may  be  ob- 
tained by  stretching  the  silk  by  machine.  In  this 
process  the  skeins  of  silk  are  laid  between  damp  cloths. 
When  the  silk  has  become  thoroughly  moistened  the 
skeins  are  placed  over  two  steel  arms,  which  are  then 
screwed  apart,  thus  stretching  the  silk  and  holding  it 
tight.  Dry  heat  is  then  applied.  Although  this 
process  diminishes  the  elasticity  of  the  silk  it  adds 
much  to  its  brilliancy  and  luster. 


DYEING  SILK 


'  h 


59 


Scroop  or  rustle  is  given  to  silk  by  soaking  it  in 
dilute  acetic  acid. 

Black  Silk 

Black  silks  are  treated  separately  and  differently 
from  colored  silks.  Either  salts  of  iron  or  salts  of  tin 
are  used  in  the  weighting,  but  more  often  the  iron  salts 
are  used.  The  silks  may  pass  through  a  weighting 
solution  several  times,  each  time  coming  out  heavier 
than  before.  The  silks  must  be  washed  thoroughly 
after  each  process.  Logwood  is  used  in  dyeing  black 
silks. 

Piece-Dyeing 

Piece-dyed  goods  are  woven  with  the  gum  in  the 
silk ;  this  gum  must  first  be  boiled  out  of  the  goods  and 
then  they  are  either  dyed  in  the  piece  or  prepared  for 
printing. 

Piece-dyed  goods  are  practically  all  pure  dye  and 
very  little  attempt  is  made  to  weight  them. 

Printing 

As  a  rule  silk  printing  is  confined  to  fabrics  woven 
of  pure  silk  and  dyed  in  the  piece,  though  it  is  possible 
to  produce  designs  on  weighted  skein-dyed  silks. 

The  most  primitive  method  of  printing  and  one  still 
employed  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  is  done  by  the 
use  of  stencils. 


w 


%    M 


i    . 


fi 


60 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Block  printing  was  the  next  method  employed  and  it 
is  still  much  used  in  Europe.  In  block  printing,  the 
pattern  is  worked  out  in  relief  on  wooden  blocks,  and 
the  color  is  taken  up  by  pressing  the  block  against  the 

pad  on  which  the  color  has  been  previously  prepared 

one  color  on  each  pad  and  one  block  for  each  color. 
Good  results  are  obtained  in  this  way  but  the  process 
is  slow,  for  the  pattern  is  put  on  the  silk  by  placing 
one  block  at  a  time  in  its  place  on  the  fabric.  A  blow 
from  a  mallet  prints  the  color  on  the  fabric. 

Machine  Printing 

Most  silk  goods  are  now  printed  by  machine.     The 
design  is  engraved  or  etched  on  copper  rollers;  there 
is  one  roller  on  the  machine  for  each  color.     If  there 
are  eight  colors  in  the  pattern  there  must  be  eight 
rollers  on  the  machine.     The  color,  which  is  thickened 
with  gum,  is  in  a  trough  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine 
and  is  supplied  to  the  cylinders  by  rolls  which  turn 
in  the  color  trough  and  against  the  cylinder.     Any  sur- 
plus is  scraped  off  by  a  knife  blade  which  is  called  a 
"  doctor."     This  leaves  the  color  only  in  the  engrav- 
ing and  this  is  taken  up  by  the  cloth,  as  it  passes  next 
to  the  cylinder.     In  order  to  set  the  colors,  the  cloth 
is  steamed  after  printing  and  it  is  then  washed  in  order 
to  remove  the  gum  used  to  thicken  the  colors  for 
printing. 


li 


DYEING  SILK 


61 


Warp  printing  is  done  by  printing  the  pattern  di- 
rectly on  the  threads  of  the  warp  with  rollers  or 
blocks.  This  gives  the  effect  of  an  indistinct  design 
on  the  silk  fabric,  because  the  filling  threads,  as  they 
cross  the  warp-printed  threads,  cover  small  portions 
of  the  design.  Dresden  and  chine  silks  are  warp- 
printed. 

Ways  of  Printing 
There  are  three  methods  of  printing  patterns : 

1.  Application  or  direct  printing.  This  is  the  print- 
ing of  the  pattern  on  the  cloth,  all  of  the  colors  being 
printed  at  once  by  means  of  engraved  rollers  as  just 
described. 

2.  Extract  or  discharge  printing.  In  this  case  the 
silk  is  first  dyed  and  the  pattern  is  printed  upon  the 
dyed  fabric  by  chemicals.  The  cloth  is  then  subjected 
to  heat  and  moisture.  This  causes  a  chemical  reaction 
to  take  place  which  either  removes  the  color  of  the 
material  where  the  design  was  printed,  leaving  it  white, 
or  produces  a  new  color  by  chemical  combination.  If 
a  light  color  is  required,  a  bleaching  agent  is  put  into 
the  chemical.  The  material  is  then  washed  and  dried 
to  prepare  it  for  the  finishing  processes. 

3.  Resist  printing.  By  this  method  the  pattern  is 
first  printed  on  the  goods  with  wax  or  some  chemical 
which  will  resist  the  action  of  the  dyestuff.     The  fab- 


♦j 


A 


■.'* 


If 


62 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


ric  is  then  dyed  and  washed  in  benzine  or  some  agent 
which  dissolves  the  wax  or  chemicals  and  brings  out 
the  design. 

Antiquity  of  Vegetable  and  Animal  Dyes 

Methods  of  extracting  colors  from  plants,  fruits, 
and  bark  of  trees,  and  their  use  in  the  dyeing  of  tex- 
tiles were  known  in  prehistoric  times.  Dyeing  was 
practiced  in  China  in  a  most  primitive  way  at  a  very 
early  date.  Later  the  manufacture  of  colors  and 
methods  of  dyeing  became  known  in  India,  where  they 
were  much  improved.  The  printing  of  textiles  was 
also  practiced.  From  India  the  art  passed  to  Babylo- 
nia and  Assyria;  thence  to  Egypt,  where  mummy 
cloths  have  been  found  which  were  dyed  with  indigo 
and  madder.  The  Phoenician  merchants  imported 
Oriental  dyestuflfs  and  others  of  their  own  manufac- 
ture into  Greece.  Tyrian  purple  was  the  dye  most 
used  by  the  Phoenicians.  It  was  obtained  from  several 
varieties  of  mollusks  which  are  found  in  tropical  seas. 
The  purple  murex  was  the  most  common  of  these. 
Green  and  blue  dyes  were  also  obtained  from  shell  fish 
of  the  murex  family.  Little  is  known  of  the  methods 
employed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Art  of  Using  Dyes  Regained  in  Europe 

With  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  art  of  dye- 
ing was  lost  to  Europe,  but  it  began  to  flourish  in 


DYEING  SILK 


63 


Arabia  and  Turkey  and  was  brought  back  to  Europe 
by  the  importation  of  Oriental  products.  Then  Ven- 
ice became  famous  for  dyes  and  dyed  goods. 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  Florence 
reached  the  zenith  of  her  power  and  among  her  other 
arts  and  handicrafts  famous  dyed  silks  were  produced. 
The  art  passed  on  to  Germany,  France,  and  Flanders, 
and  from  Flanders  to  England. 

Growth  of  Industry  in  France 

In  France  the  fostering  of  the  industry  was  due  to 
Colbert,  a  famous  statesman  who  lived  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Two  centuries  before,  in  1456, 
Gilles  and  Jean  Gobelin  had  established  dye-works  in 
Paris.  During  the  next  century  their  descendants 
added  a  tapestry  manufactory  to  the  original  works. 
There  the  Gobelin  tapestries,  famous  for  their  beauti- 
ful, rich,  and  peculiar  colors,  were  made.  The  most 
beautiful  of  the  dyes  was  a  greenish-blue,  which  is  now 
known  as  Gobelin  blue.  In  1662,  at  the  instigation  of 
Colbert,  the  factory  became  the  property  of  the  state 
and  Gobelin  tapestries  were  produced  in  much  larger 
quantities. 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  Chevreul,  a  great 
French  chemist  who  had  a  profound  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  color  and  the  dyeing  industry,  perfected  the 
vegetable  dyes  and  discovered  how  to  produce  many 
more  color  combinations. 


64 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Decrease  in  Cost  of  Dyes 

Dyed  goods  were  great  luxuries  and  prohibited  to 
most  people  because  of  their  exorbitant  price,  but  the 
invention  of  the  steam  engine  and  steam  weaving  ma- 
chines in  England  led  to  mechanically  driven  apparatus 
for  extracting  dyestuffs  and  preparing  them  for  use, 
and  this  lessened  the  expense.  The  most  important 
dyes  were  indigo  for  blue  and  madder  for  red.  Cutch 
was  used  for  brown.  Persian  berries  were  used  for 
making  extracts  of  different  yellows.  These  colors 
were  used  direct,  in  a  few  instances  in  connection  with 
mordants,  such  as  salts  of  iron,  copper,  and  aluminum 
in  the  form  of  sulphates. 

American  Dyes 

After  the  discovery  of  America  new  colors  were  ob- 
tained —  reds  from  Brazilian  redwoods ;  blues  and 
blacks  from  logwood;  cochineal,  a  scarlet  extracted 
from  female  cochineal  insects,  exported  from  Mexico. 
Safflower,  or  false  saffron ;  fustic,  or  yellow-wood ;  and 
many  other  extracts  from  West  Indian  and  South 
American  plants  also  came  into  general  use. 

Mineral  Dyes 

Dyes  made  from  various  mineral  compounds  have 
been  largely  used.  The  most  important  is  Prussian 
blue,  discovered  in  the  eighteenth  century.     It  is  made 


DYEING  SILK 


65 


from  iron  salts  in  combination  with  potassium  ferro- 
cyanid. 

Coal  Tar  Dyes  (Aniline  Dyes) 

The  most  important  of  recently  developed  dyes  are 
those  made  from  coal  tar.  They  are  derived  from  a 
substance  which  results  from  the  burning  of  coal  in 
making  illuminating  gas.  With  the  development  of 
the  gas  industry,  which  began  about  18 14,  there  came 
a  by-product  known  as  gas  coal  tar,  which  is  obtained 
from  soft  coal  when  it  is  baked  in  closed  retorts.  The 
tar  is  condensed  as  the  gas  passes  off.  It  is  a  black, 
heavy  mixture,  resembling  pitch  and  was  formerly  dif- 
ficult to  get  rid  of,  since  it  was  considered  of  no  value. 

Chemists  began  experimenting  with  the  product  and 
as  early  as  1834  aniline  dyestuff  was  discovered,  al- 
though it  was  not  at  first  known  by  that  name.  In 
1 84 1  the  same  product  was  discovered  by  another 
chemist  and  at  this  time  called  aniline.  The  year  1856 
can  properly  be  called  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the 
coal  tar  dyestuff  when  Professor  W.  H.  Perkin,  an 
English  chemist,  produced  the  first  aniline  dye  which 
was  manufactured  for  commercial  purposes.  The 
manufacture  of  coal  tar  dyes  is  now  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  scientific  industries  in  the  world. 

Growth  of  the  Industry 
Although  the  industry  originated  in  England,  in  a 


i 

i 


66 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


short  time  France  was  leading  in  the  production  of 
anihne  dyes;  then  Germany  and  Switzerland  became 
interested  and  developed  aniline  dyes  to  the  highest 
degree  of  efficiency.  Germany  practically  held  the 
monopoly  of  the  manufacture  to  19 14,  when  the  war 
began.  The  other  countries,  including  America,  were 
dependent  on  Germany  for  the  finished  raw  materials 
called  intermediates  from  which  their  dyes  were  made. 
Immediately  following  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the 
industries  in  this  country  were  handicapped  and  the 
only  solution  seemed  to  be  to  wait  until  the  end  of  the 
war,  for  it  was  thought  that  only  Germany  could  send 
the  dyes.  But  as  time  passed  American  capitalists  and 
chemists  and  others  have  worked  over  the  situation 
until  America  is  turning  out  dyestuflfs  which  are  said 
to  be  equal  to  those  of  Europe. 

Many  people  think  that  the  colors  and  the  perfumes 
obtained  are  extracted  directly  from  the  coal  tar. 
This  is  not  the  case,  for  coal  tar  is  a  mixture  of  a 
great  many  products  which  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  distillation.  These  products  are  carefully 
treated,  and  combined  chemically  with  other  chemicals 
that  are  not  present  in  the  coal  tar.  The  combination 
of  substances  produces  new  chemical  compounds 
known  as  intermediates.  These  intermediates,  treated 
with  other  intermediates,  or  heavy  chemicals,  produce 
such  substances  as  dyes,  explosives,  etc. 


Chapter  VII 
FINISHING  PROCESSES 

Variety  of  Processes  Required 

Silks,  after  being  dyed  and  woven,  or  woven  and 
dyed,  are  measured,  weighed,  and  examined.  The 
woven  pieces  are  usually  about  seventy  yards  in  length. 
A  process,  called  picking,  follows.  The  pickers, 
usually  women,  open  the  bolts  of  silk,  pass  the  material 
over  an  upright  board  in  front  of  them,  and  watch 
closely  for  small  lumps,  loose  threads,  or  anything 
that  may  harm  the  smooth  appearance  of  the  silk.  It 
is  then  examined  again  and  sent  to  be  "  finished.*' 

Silk  finishing  is  not  usually  done  in  the  factory 
where  the  material  is  woven,  but  by  a  special  "  fin- 
isher '*  who  puts  the  manufacturer's  mark  upon  it  and 
starts  it  on  its  way  through  the  different  machines. 

Good  silks  require  very  little  finishing,  but  those 
which  are  rough  and  uneven,  heavily  weighted,  or  thin 
and  sleazy,  must  have  these  defects  concealed  by  gum- 
ming, steaming,  rolling,  pressing,  and  other  processes 
to  make  them  salable. 

If  a  moire,  or  watered,  effect  is  desired  in  the  silk 
this  also  is  produced  in  the  finishing. 

67 


II 


68  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

The  principal  finishing  processes  are : 

Calendering 

Dressing  or  stiffening 

Breaking 

Tentering 

Gassing 

Moire  finish 

Calendering 

Calendering  is  practically  ironing  the  silk.  Even 
the  best  silk  goes  through  this  process.  The  material 
is  run  between  heavy  rollers,  usually  heated  by  gas  or 
steam.  As  heat  always  takes  some  of  the  stiffness 
from  the  silk,  there  is  also  a  cold  process  in  which  very 
heavy  rollers  are  used.  Calendering  not  only  smooths 
the  silk,  but  adds  gloss  or  luster. 

Stiffening 

Silk  which  is  too  soft  or  sleazy  is  passed  through  a 
machine  having  coils  of  steam  pipes  which  send  a  j^t 
of  steam  and  glue  across  the  goods.  The  glue  falls 
upon  the  material  in  a  fine  spray  and  adds  the  neces- 
sary stiffness.  Manufacturers  have  different  stiffen- 
ing agents.  Some  use  a  mixture  of  glue,  cocoanut  oil, 
and  glucose. 

Breaking 
Silk  which  has  been  stiffened  artificially  is  put  later 


FINISHING  PROCESSES 


69 


through  a  breaking  machine  which  has  rollers  with 
buttons  or  small  knobs  of  brass  fitted  in  spirally.  As 
the  silk  passes  between  the  rollers  the  spiral  knobs  draw 
it  on  the  bias  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other, 
breaking  up  the  glue  and  making  the  material  soft. 

Tentering 

The  tentering  machine  is  usually  a  very  long  one. 
As  the  silk  may  have  shrunk  a  half  inch  or  more  in 
width  during  the  previous  processes,  it  is  put  on  this 
machine  to  stretch  it  to  its  original  width.  The  silk 
is  caught  by  its  edges  and  held  tightly  while  moving 
slowly  first  over  steam  and  then  over  dry  heat  from 
many  gas  flames. 

Gassing 

The  process  is  somewhat  like  that  used  in  treating 
the  yarn  referred  to  in  Chapter  III.  The  silk  is  run 
swiftly  through  a  machine  which  may  have  gas  jets 
burning  on  both  the  top  and  bottom,  or  only  on  top. 
As  the  material  passes  over  or  under  the  flame  the 
fuzz,  or  short  ends  of  the  silk,  is  singed  off  and  the 
surface  is  left  smooth.  The  speed  of  the  machine  is 
so  great  that  the  flame  burns  off  the  loose  fibers  with- 
out injuring  the  silk. 

Moire  Finish 
The  moire  or  watered  effect  can  be  obtained  only 


I 


iii 


70 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


upon  silks  woven  with  a  cord,  and  materials  with  a 
pronounced  cord  show  the  effect  the  best.  There  are 
two  ways  of  doing  this : 

1.  The  two  selvages  of  the  silk  are  folded  together 
and  the  silk  is  then  submitted  to  heavy  pressure  be- 
tween heated  rollers.  Wherever  the  cords  come  in 
contact  with  each  other  they  become  flattened  so  that 
when  the  light  falls  upon  the  surface  of  the  fabric  it 
is  reflected  differently  at  these  points.  The  result  is 
the  wavy,  watered  effect. 

2.  By  the  other  method  the  silk  is  run  under  pres- 
sure through  two  heated  rollers  which  have  a  grain 
engraved  upon  them  exactly  corresponding  to  the  grain 
of  the  silk.  By  drawing  the  silk  to  one  side  the  grain 
of  the  roller  crosses  the  silk  grain  and  crushes  it  when- 
ever it  strikes. 

Shower-Proofing 

Shower-proof  silks  are  put  through  a  secret  process 
which  prevents  them  from  being  spotted  by  water. 
This  process  does  not  injure  the  fabric  nor  affect  its 
feeling  or  appearance. 

Permanency  of  Finishes 

An  artificial  finish  upon  any  fabric  tends  to  disap- 
pear when  the  material  is  in  use.  The  gloss  wears 
off,  stiffness  is  lost,  and  goods  made  smooth  by  pres- 
sure become  roughened  by  wear. 


FINISHING  PROCESSES 


71 


When  silk  has  been  finished  it  is  inspected  for  im- 
perfections, measured  and  folded  by  machine,  wrapped 
in  paper,  and  finally  is  carefully  packed  for  shipment. 


7 


Chapter  VIII 

ARTIFICIAL  OR  FIBER  SILK 

Reason  for  Making  Artificial  Silk 

Silk  is  the  most  costly,  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful, 
of  the  textile  fibers.  So  much  hand-labor  is  required 
for  the  raising  of  silkworms  and  the  gathering  of  the 
raw  silk  from  their  cocoons,  that  the  product  must 
always  be  expensive.  For  this  reason  many  experi- 
ments have  been  made  whereby  an  imitation  or  substi- 
tute for  the  silk  fiber  might  be  produced  by  chemical 
processes. 

These  experiments  have  succeeded  to  such  an  extent 
that  several  varieties  of  artificial  or  fiber  silk  resem- 
bling silk  very  closely  are  now  made  and  are  used  in- 
stead of  true  silk  for  many  purposes. 

DiflFerence  Between  Real  and  Artificial  Silk 

The  fiber  of  silk  differs  from  that  of  cotton,  linen, 
or  wool  in  both  its  length  and  its  structure.  The 
length  of  all  these  may  be  measured  by  inches,  while 
silk  is  many  yards  long.  The  other  fibers  when  viewed 
under  the  microscope  are  composed  of  tiny  cells  whose 

72 


ARTIFICIAL  OR  FIBER  SILK 


73 


walls  make  the  firmness  of  the  fiber,  while  silk  has  no 
such  cellular  structure. 

The  spinning  of  silk  by  the  worm  from  the  gummy 
substance  in  its  own  glands,  and  the  hardening  of  this 
substance  on  exposure  to  the  air  has  suggested  to 
chemists  that  they  might  first  produce  a  substance  simi- 
lar in  composition  to  the  silk  in  the  body  of  the  silk- 
worm, and  then  force  this  substance  through  tiny  tubes, 
corresponding  to  the  mouths  of  the  silkworms. 

Since  fibroin,  or  the  silk  fiber,  is  animal  fiber,  ex- 
periments have  been  made  with  various  animal  sub- 
stances, but  even  if  they  had  been  wholly  successful, 
they  are  too  costly  to  be  practical.  The  substance 
which  is  the  basis  of  all  the  artificial  silk  used  in  com- 
merce is  called  cellulose,  and  is  of  vegetable  origin. 
Cellulose  can  l^e  best  obtained  from  either  cotton  or 
wood  pulp,  though  it  occurs  in  the  other  vegetable 
fibers. 

Kinds  of  Artificial  Silk 

The  three  kinds  of  artificial  silk  which  have  been 
commercially  successful  are : 

1.  Nitrocellulose  or  pyroxylin  silks 

2.  Cuprammonium  silks 

3.  Viscose  silks 

The  first  two  of  these  are  made  from  cotton  waste, 
while  the  third  is  made  from  the  pulp  of  the  spruce 


ii 


74 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


ii 


tree.  Pyroxylin  silks  are  the  oldest,  but  viscose  silks 
are  the  cheapest  and  practically  the  only  ones  made 
and  used  in  the  United  States. 

Manufacture 

There  are  a  number  of  agents  used  in  dissolving  the 
cellulose,  such  as  ammonia,  alcohol,  ether,  and  caustic 
alkalies. 

To  produce  pyroxylin  silks  nitrocellulose  is  dissolved 
in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether.  Cuprammonium 
silk  is  produced  by  dissolving  cotton  cellulose  in  a  solu- 
tion of  ammonia  and  cupric  oxide. 

For  viscose  silk  the  wood  of  the  spruce  tree  is 
chopped  and  finely  ground.*  It  is  then  treated  with 
caustic  soda  and  water,  which  causes  the  fiber  to  swell. 

The  solution  is  next  exposed  to  the  action  of  carbon 
disulphid  -and  the  fibers  continue  to  swell  until  they 
are  like  a  jelly,  which  easily  dissolves  in  water.  The 
solution  is  viscous,  or  of  the  consistency  of  molasses. 
For  this  reason  the  name  viscose  is  given  to  the  arti- 
ficial silk  product. 

The  sticky  mass  is  forced  through  exceedingly  fine 
tubes  of  glass  or  platinum,  which  terminate  in  water 
containing  ammonium  sulphid  or  ammonium  chlorid. 

*  It  is  said  that  the  wood  of  the  mulberry  tree  has  been  experimented 
with,  and  when  reduced  to  cellulose  gives  the  best  basis  for  the  making  of 
artificial  silk,  but  since  the  mulberry  is  needed  for  the  silkworms,  it  can- 
not  be  spared  for  other  use.  It  has  also  been  found  by  further  experiment- 
ing that  any  soft  wood  will  answer,  but  the  wood  of  the  spruce  tree  seems 
especially  adapted  to  the  purpose. 


U  ': 


ARTIFICIAL  OR  FIBER  SILK 


75 


Upon  touching  the  water  it  hardens  into  delicate  fila- 
ments which  are  drawn  out,  slightly  twisted  into  a 
thread,  and  wound  upon  bobbins  or  spools.  While  the 
filaments  of  artificial  silk  are  very  fine,  the  average 
number  being  about  eighteen  to  a  thread,  they  are  not 
nearly  so  fine  as  true  silk. 

History 

The  first  attempt  to  produce  an  artificial  fiber  resem- 
bling the  filament  of  the  silkworm  was  made  as  long 
ago  as  1734  by  a  Frenchman  named  Reamur.  He 
used  a  sort  of  varnish  which  he  forced  through  very 
small  holes;  this  hardened  like  silk,  but  it  was  never 
practical. 

It  was  not  until  1855  that  another  attempt  was  re- 
corded. This  was  made  by  a  Swedish  chemist,  Ande- 
mars.  Cellulose  pulp  was  used,  made  by  dissolving 
the  inner  bark  of  the  mulberry  tree  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  This  formed  a  sticky  substance,  which  when 
drawn  out  into  threads,  hardened  in  the  air  like  real 
silk.  Although  he  took  out  a  patent  on  the  process,  he 
was  not  successful  in  putting  it  on  the  market. 

In  1883  J-  ^-  Swan,  an  Englishman,  experimented 
with  threads  macle  from  a  solution  of  nitrocellulose. 
This  composition  is  like  gun  cotton  and  very  inflam- 
mable, but  he  overcame  the  difficulty  by  denitrating  the 
threads  with  ammonium  sulphid. 

Chardonnet,  a  Frenchman,  was  the  most  successful 


76 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


ARTIFICIAL  OR  FIBER  SILK 


77 


•  t 


of  all  the  inventors.  He  took  out  his  patent  in  1885. 
He  used  cotton  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  ether.  In  or- 
der to  carry  on  his  work  a  factory  was  opened  at  Be- 
sangon.  Others  who  took  out  patents  were  Du  Vivier 
in  1899,  Lehner  in  1890,  Pauly  in  1897,  and  Stern  in 
1898.     Many  other  processes  have  been  tried. 

Characteristics 

Artificial  or  fiber  silk  has  a  very  high  luster  and  is 
far  more  brilliant  than  real  silk.  It  takes  dyes  readily 
and  many  beautiful  colors  are  easily  obtained.  It  is 
not  soft  like  silk,  but  harsh  and  stiff  to  the  touch.  As 
a  material  it  does  not  drape  nor  fall  in  graceful  folds. 
When  wet  or  submerged  in  water  it  feels  like  a  gelati- 
nous substance. 

It  is  neither  as  strong  nor  as  elastic  as  true  silk. 
When  wet  it  loses  much  of  its  natural  strength,  but  it 
regains  this  when  dry.  A  single  yarn  of  artificial  silk 
is  usually  made  up  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  filaments, 
twisted  very  little.  Artificial  silk  can  easily  be  detected 
by  unraveling  a  thread  and  noticing  the  many  filaments 
of  which  it  is  composed.  These  readily  separate  and 
do  not  have  the  twisted  appearance  of  real  silk. 

Uses 

From  artificial  silk  are  made  dress  trimmings, 
passementerie  dress  braids,  hat  trimmings  (many  of 
which  look  like  straw),  neckties,  hosiery,  sweaters, 


scarfs,  many  beautiful  embroidery  silks,  draperies,  and 
many  of  the  silk  stripes,  figures,  or  patterns  in  fancy 
mixed  goods,  or  so-called  "  part-silk  "  goods. 

It  is  found  in  cotton-and-silk  mixed  goods,  where  its 
high  luster  makes  a  very  good  effect.  Artificial  silk 
has  not  as  yet  been  woven  by  itself  into  a  strong,  firm 
dress  material,  but  is  woven  with  a  cotton  warp.  It 
has,  however,  been  knitted  into  satisfactory  materials. 

At  the  ribbon  counter  may  be  found  ribbons  made 
with  a  satin  weave ;  the  warp  is  of  cotton  and  the  long 
threads  of  the  satin  weave  are  of  fiber  silk.  This  does 
not  at  present  seem  very  satisfactory  as  the  artificial 
silk  threads  become  roughened  and  lose  their  smooth 
appearance. 

Artificial  silk  has  recently  been  woven  into  a  very 
beautiful  gauzelike  material,  which  has  a  metallic  look 
like  gold  or  silver.  In  light  colors  this  is  most  at- 
tractive. 

Experiments  are  constantly  being  made  and  artificial 
silk  is  coming  more  and  more  into  favor.  The  cost  of 
production  is  about  one-half  that  of  silk,  but  much  of 
the  material  sold  by  the  yard  is  as  expensive  as  silk. 

Fiber  silk  sweaters  are  very  much  less  costly  than 
silk  sweaters;  fiber  silk  stockings  are  less  expensive 
than  silk  stockings  and  wear  better  than  a  cheap  silk 
stocking. 

Many  hat  trimmings  are  made  of  artificial  or  fiber 
silk ;  some  of  these  are  run  through  gelatin  which  sticks 


78 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


the  fibers  together  and  makes  weaving  unnecessary, 
giving  a  finish  which  resembles  patent  leather.  This 
treatment  with  gelatin  is  a  quick  process. 

Sometimes  millinery  silk  tulle  or  maline  is  made  by 
pouring  the  paste  or  pulp  over  a  flat  surface,  rolling  it 
out  thin,  and  marking  it  with  rollers  which  are  en- 
graved in  such  a  way  that  the  maline  has  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  woven.  This  material  is  satisfac- 
tory because  it  is  good-looking,  its  cost  is  low,  and  it 
will  last  if  it  is  not  wet. 

Names  of  Materials 

Some  of  the  names  given  to  very  attractive  materials 
of  artificial  fiber  silk  are: 

Baronet  Satin 

Fan-ta-si 

Khaki-Kool 

Kumsi-Kumsa 

Satin  Supreme 

Sport  Crepe 

Tricolette 

Laundering 

Artificial  silk  will  not  stand  a  high  temperature  and 
it  must  be  handled  carefully  when  washed  or  ironed. 
Hot  water  or  hot  irons  injure  real  silk  and  are  even 
more  injurious  to  artificial  silk. 


ARTIFICIAL  OR  FIBER  SILK 


79 


Vegetable  Silk 

Some  plants  and  trees  have  seed  hairs  or  fibers  at- 
tached to  the  seeds.  Among  these  is  one  which  bears 
a  pod,  somewhat  resembling  the  milkweed  pod  but 
larger  in  size.  When  the  pod  is  ripe  it  bursts  open 
and  is  found  to  be  filled  with  thin,  transparent  silkhke 
fibers,  less  than  one-half  inch  long.  EflForts  have  been 
made  to  spin  and  weave  these  fibers  into  cloth.  It  has 
been  found  more  satisfactory  to  combine  them  with 
wool  or  cotton. 

These  fibers  are  known  as  "  kapok."  The  trees  are 
found  in  India,  South  America,  and  the  East  Indies, 
and  they  are  called  **  cotton  trees,"  or  "  silk  cotton 
trees."  The  best  use  for  kapok  has  been  as  filling  in 
the  manufacture  of  mattresses  and  pillows  and  in  up- 
holstery. 


i 

I 

'4.' 


v;' 


^1 


Chapter  IX 

MIXTURES,  IMITATIONS.  ADULTERATIONS 
AND  TESTS  FOR  SILK 

Mixtures— Silk  and  Wool 

Silk  is  mixed  with  wool  and  with  cotton  in  making 
many  materials. 

Among  the  silk-and-wool  mixtures  there  are  those 
which  have  a  silk  warp  and  worsted  filling,  as : 

Gloria    ^ 
Henrietta  cloth 
Lansdowne 
Bombazine 

Mohair  is  sometimes  made  of  a  combination  of  silk 
with  hair  from  the  angora  goat.  All  these  materials, 
however,  are  usually  sold  in  the  Wool  Department. 

There  are  also  corded  "  silks,"  in  which  the  heavy 
filling  for  the  cords  is  wool,  but  where  the  silk  warp 
threads  completely  cover  them,  as  bengaline  and  poplin. 

Mixtures — Silk  and  Cotton 

Silk  is  also  combined  with  cotton  in  such  materials, 


as: 


80 


MIXTURES,  IMITATIONS,  TESTS 


81 


Voiles 

Shantungs 

Foulards 

Cotton-back  satin 

Velveteens 

Silk  muslins 

Silk  ginghams 

Upholstery  materials 

In  most  cases  the  mixture  is  apparent,  as  the  mate- 
rials do  not  have  the  same  luster  as  all-silk  fabrics.  In 
others  the  fabric  may  be  easily  taken  for  all  silk,  par- 
ticularly when  mercerized  cotton  is  used  with  the  silk. 

Cotton  is  also  used  for  the  cords  in  such  corded 
material,  as : 

Poplin 
Eolienne 

Sometimes  silk-faced  fabrics  are  backed  with  a 
material  of  another  fiber,  for  example  wool,  to  make 
them  heavier.  ( See  Chapter  V  for  "  Double-Cloth 
Weaving.") 

Imitations 

Because  of  its  value,  silk  has  more  imitations  than 
any  other  fiber.     The  principal  imitations  are : 

I.  Mercerized  cotton,  where  a  permanent  silky  fin- 
ish has  been  given  to  cotton.  This  is  some- 
times used  as  a  substitute  for  silk.     (See 


I 


82 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


pages  36-38  of  manual   for  "Cotton  and 
Linen  Departments.") 
2.  Artificial    silk,    manufactured    from   cellulose. 
(See  Chapter  VIII.) 

Silk-surfacing  is  a  method  of  treating  cotton  yam 
to  make  it  look  like  silk.  This  is  done  by  soaking 
smooth  cotton  yarns  in  a  solution  of  pure  silk  made  by 
dissolving  silk  remnants  and  other  silk  waste  in  some 
acid. 

Before  being  placed  in  the  silk  bath  the  cotton  yam 
is  soaked  in  a  metallic  acid  solution,  which  causes 
tlie  silk  solution  to  be  more  readily  taken  up.  The 
yarn  is  then  dried,  run  between  heavy  rollers,  gassed, 
and  polished.  A  fine  silklike  appearance  is  the  result. 
The  cotton  yarn  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  true 
silk,  but  it  has  little  durability  and  can  be  used  only 
for  goods  which  will  have  little  wear  and  no  hard 
washing. 

Many  mercerized  cotton  fabrics  are  given  names 
which  lead  inexperienced  persons  to  think  that  there  is 
some  silk  in  the  article.  Some  of  the  names  of  these 
cotton  materials  which  suggest  the  presence  of  silk 


are: 


Near  silk 
Silkaline 
Farmer's  satin 
Sateen 


MIXTURES,  IMITATIONS,  TESTS 


83 


Adulterations 

Silk  is  adulterated  in  many  ways  to  lessen  its  ex- 
pense, as: 

Weighting  with  metallic  salts  (see  Chapter  VI) 

Adding  spun  silk 

Adding  wild  silk 

Adding  artificial  silk 

Adding  mercerized  cotton 

Adding  cotton 

Characteristics  of  Silk 

Intelligent  use  of  the  tests  here  given  for  distinguish- 
ing real  silk  depends  largely  upon  a  definite  knowledge 
of  the  characteristics  of  true  silk. 

Its  most  individual  qualities  are  as  follows : 

Strength.  Before  the  gum  is  removed  silk  is  the 
strongest  for  its  size  of  all  the  textile  fibers.  Weight- 
ing decreases  its  strength. 

Luster.  Silk  has  more  luster  than  any  of  the  other 
fibers.  Its  luster  is  increased  by  special  treatment,  but 
weighting  and  careless  laundering  decrease  it. 

Elasticity.  Before  the  boiling-oflf  process  silk  is 
very  elastic.     Weighting  decreases  the  elasticity. 

Cleanliness.  Silk  fabrics  may  be  said  to  "  shed  the 
dust,"  that  is,  dust  does  not  accumulate  quickly  nor  do 
germs  increase  rapidly  on  silk. 

Softness.  Silk  is  unusually  soft  after  the  gum  is 
removed. 


84 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


i 


f 


Endurance,  Silk  if  not  heavily  weighted  will  last 
for  years. 

Weight  Silk  is  the  lightest  in  weight  of  all  textile 
fibers. 

Absorption.  Silk  absorbs  water  and  will  take  a 
great  deal  of  moisture;  this  quality  makes  it  good  for 
umbrellas,  underwear,  etc.  It  may  be  soaked  in  water 
without  impairing  its  strength.  It  is  the  only  fiber 
which  is  proof  against  mildew. 

Burning  Tests 

Pure  silk  burns  slowly,  with  an  odor  of  burning 
hair,  and  the  flame  goes  out  quickly,  leaving  a  gummy 
substance.  It  is  sometimes  more  satisfactory  to  pull 
out  threads  from  both  warp  and  filling  and  apply  a 
match  to  them,  as  both  threads  may  not  be  of  silk. 
The  silk  thread  will  swell  and  boil,  and  a  little  ball 
will  form  on  the  end;  if  there  are  any  cotton  threads 
they  will  burn  quickly. 

Weighted  silk  is  easily  detected  by  the  burning  test. 
When  a  match  is  applied  to  the  sample  the  silk  will 
burn  away  and  leave  an  ash  which  retains  the  shape  of 
the  sample.  This  ash  is  the  mineral  weighting,  which 
will  not  burn.  Another  form  of  this  experiment  is  to 
place  a  sample  of  the  silk  on  a  small  dish  and  leave  it  in 
a  very  hot  oven  for  about  an  hour ;  then  the  silk  will 
be  consumed  and  the  weighting  left. 

Another  simple  experiment  for  weighted  silk  is  to 


MIXTURES,  IMITATIONS,  TESTS 


85 


place  a  sample  in  a  glass  bottle  or  test  tube  and  with  a 
pair  of  pincers  or  a  twisted  wire  hold  the  tube  over  ft 
gas  flame.  The  silk  will  gradually  be  consumed  and 
the  metallic  weighting  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle. 

Microscopic  Tests 

Silk  fiber  under  the  microscope  will  be  seen  to  consist 
of  two  threads  held  together  by  gum. 

Silk  with  the  gum  boiled  off  will  appear  smooth, 
cylindrical,  lustrous,  and  transparent. 

Wild  silk  has  a  broad  filament  which  is  irregular  in 
diameter  with  many  lengthwise  lines. 

Spun  silk  is  difficult  to  distinguish,  but  the  fibers  are 
irregular  in  form. 

Artificial  silk  has  a  glassy,  metallic  look.  The  fiber 
is  wider  than  true  silk  and  looks  something  like  a  glass 
tube  with  flutings.  Real  silk  fiber  is  always  twisted ; 
artificial  silk  is  seldom  twisted,  but  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  parallel  strands. 

Chemical  Tests 

Cultivated  silk  is  destroyed  in  two  minutes  in  a  40 
per  cent  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  but  tussah  or 
wild  silk  is  not  much  affected. 

When  a  sample  of  wool-and-silk  mixture  goods  is 
put  into  a  cold  10  per  cent  solution  of  caustic  soda  the 
wool  is  destroyed  at  once  and  the  silk  is  affected  more 
slowly. 


86 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


The  presence  of  cotton  or  wool  may  be  discovered 
by  placing  a  sample  in  a  40  per  cent  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  silk  will  be  destroyed  in  two  minutes 
and  the  other  fiber  will  remain  untouched. 

Artificial  silks  in  cold  10  per  cent  caustic  soda  are 
destroyed  in  about  two  minutes  and  true  silks  not  so 
quickly. 

Other  Miscellaneous  Tests 

Silk  mixed  with  cotton  or  wool  can  often  be  detected 
by  the  use  of  the  magnifying  glass. 

Whether  the  silk  is  reeled  silk  or  spun  silk  can  be  de- 
termined by  untwisting  the  fibers  and  seeing  whether 
they  are  long  or  short.  The  threads  of  spun  silk  also 
draw  apart  and  break  more  easily  than  reeled  silk. 

A  good  silk  has  "  body  '*  to  it  and  will  snap  when 
shaken. 

Weaving  Tests 

Press  the  two  thumbs  together  on  the  fabric  and  pull 
tight,  both  warp-way  and  filling-way.  If  the  material 
is  not  strong  it  will  pull  apart  —  fray  out,  or  tear. 

To  find  out  if  the  material  will  pull  away  at  the 
seams,  see  if  the  threads  can  be  moved  by  pushing  with 
the  finger  nails.  If  the  threads  push  apart  easily  the 
material  is  not  strong.  Soft  silks,  otherwise  good, 
will  sometimes  draw  in  the  seams.     Consequently  they 


MIXTURES,  IMITATIONS,  TESTS 


87 


should  be  made  up  so  that  there  is  as  little  strain  as 
possible. 

Tests  for  "  Feel " 

A  person  may  be  trained  to  recognize  by  look  and 
feel  the  qualities  of  pure  silk,  its  adulterations  and  im- 
itations, and  hence  the  values.  The  good  or  best  qual- 
ities should  be  studied,  so  that  the  cheaper  qualities  may 
be  judged  by  comparison. 

Artificial  silk  is  easily  recognized  by  its  high  luster 
and  coarse  threads,  and  by  the  fact  that  it  is  woven 
with  another  material,  usually  cotton. 

Weighted  silk  can  often  be  detected  by  its  stiffness. 
Good  silk  is  soft  to  touch. 
The  best  of  silks  will  wear  shiny. 
A  test  for  elasticity  is  made  by  wrinkling  the  mate- 
rial in  the  hand  and  shaking  it  out.     If  the  wrinkles 
stay  in,  the  material  will  quickly  become  crushed  and 
wrinkled  when  worn.     A  good  silk  when  crushed  in 
the  hand  will,  upon  being  released,  spring  out  again. 

Crepe  de  chine  and  other  silks  with  closely  twisted 
threads  wear  better  than  the  soft  silks,  but  are  not  so 
lustrous. 

Taffetas  crease  easily,  for  they  are  stiff  and  often 
heavily  weighted. 

A  very  stiff  silk  will  soon  crack. 
The  old  test  to  see  if  a  silk  had  body  enough  to  wear 
well  was  to  lift  it  slowly  up  and  down  in  the  hand.     If 


88 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


it  felt  heavy  it  was  considered  a  superior  quality,  espe- 
cially in  a  black  silk. 

This  test  cannot  be  depended  on  now,  for  the  silk 
may  be  weighted  with  50  per  cent  or  even  100  per  cent 
of  tin  or  iron  and  glue  weighting,  which  will  give  it 
body  so  that  it  will  feel  heavy,  look  lustrous,  and  seem 
good  to  most  people. 

Experience  in  handling  silks  is  one  of  the  best  tests. 
One  can  learn  to  know  a  good  silk  by  the  feel  of  it. 


Chapter  X 
PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR  * 

Importance  of  a  Knowledge  of  Color  to  the 
Salesperson 

Color  is  a  matter  of  very  great  importance  in  connec- 
tion with  many  varieties  of  merchandise.  In  order  to 
judge  textiles,  china  and  glass,  art  embroidery,  draperies, 
rugs,  ready-to-wear  garments,  millinery,  and  many 
other  varieties  of  merchandise  intelligently,  some  fun- 
damental knowledge  of  color  is  essential.  The  ac- 
cepted theories  of  color  and  color  combinations  are 
therefore  given  here  briefly. 

Combinations  of  Colors 

There  are  two  ways  of  combining  colors  which  pro- 
duce quite  different  results.     They  are : 

The  combination  of  colored  lights. 

The  combination  of  colored  pigments  or  dyes. 

When  different  colored  lights  are  combined,  the  re- 
sult is  a  combination  of  the  two  colors.     When  colored 

This  chapter,  containing  the  essential  principles  of  color,  was  prepared 
by  the  editor  and  appears  in  several  of  the  manuals  of  this  series 

89 


90 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


pigments  are  combined,  one  color  seems  to  absorb  or 
counteract  the  other.  One  explanation  of  the  differ- 
ence is  that  the  pigments  are  never  perfectly  pure,  that 
is,  they  contain  elements  of  other  colors  and  therefore 
cannot  give  the  same  result  as  a  combination  of  the 
similar  colored  lights. 

All  colors  are  produced  by  the  effect  of  light  upon 
the  nerves  of  the  eye,  and  as  the  eye  sees  them,  colors 
are  contained  within  the  light  itself,  forming  when 
united  a  white  or  colorless  light,  as  in  sunlight.  It  is 
only  when  part  of  the  light  rays  are  in  some  way  ab- 
sorbed or  intercepted  that  we  see  the  remaining  rays 
as  distinct  colors. 

The  Spectrum 

Nearly  everyone  has  seen  the  band  of  beautiful 
colors  which  is  formed  by  a  beam  of  sunlight  passing 
through  a  prism.  The  same  effect  is  produced  when 
the  sun's  rays  pass  through  the  raindrops  and  we  see 
the  beautiful  band  or  rainbow  of  colors  in  the  sky. 

The  theory  is  that  as  the  beam  of  sunlight  passes 
through  the  prism,  it  is  separated  or  split  into  the  ele- 
ments of  which  it  is  made  up  and  forms  a  band  of 
colors  instead  of  a  white  light.  This  band  of  colored 
light  is  called  the  spectrum,  and  the  colors,  whether 
seen  through  the  prism  or  in  the  rainbow,  are  known 
as  the  spectrum  colors.  They  are  red.  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  and  violet.     But  when  we  see  these  colors,' 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR  91 

either  in  the  rainbow  or  through  the  prism,  there  is 
every  gradation  from  one  color  to  the  next  so  that  the 
change  from  one  color  to  the  other  is  almost  imper- 
ceptible. For  instance,  the  red  changes  through  the 
different  degrees  of  red-orange  to  orange,  and  this 
changes  through  the  orange-yellows  to  yellow ;  the  yel- 
low changes  through  the  yellow-greens  to  green;  the 
green  changes  through  the  green-blues  to  blue ;'  the 
blue  changes  through  the  violet-blues  to  red. 

Standard  Colors 

The  colors  of  the  spectrum  are  accepted  as  the  nor- 
mal or  standard  colors:  red,  orange,  yellow,  green, 
blue,  and  violet. 

These  normal  or  standard  colors  are  represented  in 
each  case  by  the  greatest  intensity  of  the  color.  For 
instance,  the  standard  red  is  the  most  intense  red,  the 
standard  blue  is  the  strongest  blue,  and  so  on. 

While  the  spectrum  has  six  colors  which  seem  to  be 
of  equal  importance  in  the  ray  of  light,  we  find  that  in 
mixing  pigments  or  dyes  they  fall  into  two  classes 
called  primary  and  secondary  colors. 

Primary  Colors 

The  primary  colors  are  so  individual  that  they  can- 
not be  produced  by  any  mixture  of  other  colors.  They 
are  red,  blue,  and  yellow. 


92 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Secondary  Colors 

Secondary  colors  may  be  made  by  mixing  two  of 
the  primary  ones.     They  are : 

Orange,  made  by  mixing  red  and  yellow. 
Green,  made  by  mixing  yellow  and  blue. 
Violet,  made  by  mixing  blue  and  red.* 

Characteristics  of  Primary  Colors 

Of  the  three  primary  colors,  yellow  is  the  most  "  ad- 
vancing," that  is,  seems  to  stand  out  from  its  back- 
ground. It  is  nearest  to  white  and  possesses  the 
greatest  power  of  reflecting  light.  It  imparts  bril- 
liancy in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  every  compound 
into  which  it  enters. 

Red  is  the  most  positive.  It  represents  warmth  as  it 
is  brilliant  and  cheerful,  and  it  appears  to  advance 
somewhat.  Red  expresses  vibration,  action,  and 
warmth. 

Blue  is  the  most  "  retiring  "  of  the  primaries  and 
represents  coldness,  appearing  to  recede  from  the 
eyes.  It  imparts  coldness  in  various  degrees  to 
every  color  or  hue  into  the  composition  of  which  it 
enters. 

•  There  are  several  theories  concerning  the  number  of  primary  colors  in 
light,  but  they  do  not  alter  the  fact  that  blue,  red,  and  yellow  cannot  be 
made  in  pigments  or  dyes  by  combining  other  colors;  while  the  tints, 
shades,  and  hues  of  all  other  colors  except  blue,  red,  and  yellow  may  be' 
made  by  means  of  such  combinations. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR 


93 


Characteristics  of  Secondary  Colors 

Of  the  secondary  colors,  green,  composed  of  the  pri- 
maries blue  and  yellow,  is  cool  or  warm  as  it  inclines  to 
blue  or  yellow.  Yet  in  general  it  is  cool,  cheerful,  and 
refreshing. 

^  Orange,  composed  of  yellow  and  red,  is  the  most 
"  advancing  "  of  the  secondaries.  It  is  composed  of 
two  luminous  colors  and  is  considered  the  warmest  and 
most  powerful  of  all  the  colors.  It  should  therefore 
be  used  sparingly. 

Violet  or  purple,  composed  of  red  and  blue,  is  the 
darkest  of  the  secondary  colors  and  is  related  most 
nearly  to  black.     It  reflects  very  little  light  and  looks 
still  darker  in  a  declining  light.     It  is  a  retiring  color 
and,  although  red  enters  into  its  composition,  it  cannot 
be  classed  as  a  warm  color  except  in  its  redder  hues 
In  yellow  artificial  light,  such  as  gaslight,  it  appears 
brown.     Next  to  green,  purple  may  be  considered  the 
most  pleasing  of  the  secondary  colors  and  has  almost 
universally  been  considered  the  royal  or  imperial  color. 
It  IS  probable,  however,  that  the  Tyrian  purple,  of 
which  we  have  heard  so  much,  approached  a  crimson  or 
red,  rather  than  the  deep  and  subdued  color  known  as 
purple  today. 

Luminous  and  Somber  Colors 
Colors  are  also  described  as: 


1^ 


u 


p 


94  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

Luminous  or  warm : 
Yellow 
Orange 
Red 
Light  green 

Somber  or  cold : 

Blue 

Violet 

Dark  green 

Broken  tones  of  luminous  colors 

Broken  Colors 

Tertiary  or  broken  colors  are  not  found  in  the  spec- 
trum, but  may  be  made  by  mixing  two  secondary 
colors.  They  contain  all  three  primary  colors  in  un- 
equal proportions  and  are  named  according  to  the  pre- 
dominating color : 

Russet,  orange  plus  purple  —  red  predominating. 
Olive,  purple  plus  green  —  blue  predominating. 
Citrine,  orange  plus  green  —  yellow  predominat- 
ing. 

Besides  the  compound  colors  called  tertiaries,  there 
are  many  other  hues  into  which  the  three  primary 
colors  enter.  Among  these  the  most  characteristic  are 
brown,  maroon,  and  gray. 

Brown  requires  black  for  its  basis,  with  a  mixture 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR 


95 


of  citrine  and  olive.     It  is  a  retiring  and  sedate  color, 
but  not  dismal  nor  depressing. 

Maroon  is  formed  by  a  mixture  of  russet  and  olive, 
with  an  excess  of  red. 

Gray  is  always  restful  to  the  eyes.  A  perfectly  neu- 
tral gray  which  forms  the  perfect  background  for  other 
colors,  is  a  combination  of  black  and  white.  Besides 
the  neutral  gray,  there  are  many  others,  as  blue-grays, 
olive-grays,  and  green-grays,  formed  by  adding  other 
colors. 

Black  and  white  make  gray  in  whatever  combination 
they  are  used. 

Absorption  and  Reflection  of  Color 

The  color  of  any  object  is  due  to  its  power  to  absorb 
certain  colored  rays  in  white  light  and  to  reflect  others. 
An  object  which  looks  red  reflects  only  the  red  and 
has  absorbed  the  other  colored  rays.  A  blue  body  re- 
flects the  blue  and  absorbs  all  other  rays. 

White  substances  reflect  all  the  rays  of  light;  black 
substances  absorb  them  all.  For  this  reason  black  is 
said  to  be  the  absence  of  all  colors,  as  white  is  the 
presence  of  all.  (However,  no  mixture  of  colored 
pigments  will  produce  white.  The  theory  is  true  only 
of  light  rays.  Mixtures  of  colored  paints  will  produce 
gray.) 

By  its  absorption  of  light  rays,  black  lowers  the  tone 


96 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


of  any  color  placed  next  to  it.    Some  colors,  such  as 
yellow,  it  "  impoverishes." 

By  its  reflection  of  all  light  rays,  white  heightens  or 
brightens  the  tone  of  any  color  which  is  placed  close 
beside  it. 


Complementary  Colors 

The  color  rays  absorbed  by  any  substance  "comple- 
ment,*' or  complete,  the  ones  reflected  in  making  white 
light.  Therefore,  they  are  called  the  complementary 
colors. 

The  complementary  color  of: 

Blue  is  orange,  or  red  plus  yellow. 
Red  is  green,  or  blue  plus  yellow. 
Yellow  is  violet,  or  red  plus  blue. 

In  the  diagram  (Figure  lo)  the  complementary  col- 
ors are  found  by  following  the  various  lines  across  the 
circle  to  the  opposite  outer  edge. 

These  colors  are  sometimes  supplied  by  the  nerves 
of  the  eye  itself  which  are  wearied  by  looking  too  long 
at  one  hue.  This  may  be  proved  by  a  simple  experi- 
ment. 

If  a  circular  piece  of  red  paper  is  placed  on  a  white 
background  and  looked  at  steadily  for  a  time,  and  then 
the  eyes  are  turned  toward  a  white  surface,  a  green 
circle  exactly  corresponding  in  size  to  the  red  one  first 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR 


97 


seen  will  appear.  A  blue  or  a  yellow  circle  will  pro- 
duce their  complementary  colors  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. 

This  exhaustion  of  the  nerves  of  the  eye  also  causes 
a  color  to  appear  duller  after  one  has  looked  at  it  a 
long  time.  If  the  nerves  are  rested  by  another  color  — 
especially  the  complementary  one  —  they  will  become 
normal  again. 

When  the  complementary  colors  are  reflected  from 
another  color  rather  than  a  white  background,  they 
change  the  hue  of  that  color. 

To  eyes  which  are  fatigued  by  looking  at  blue,  red 
will  appear  like  an  orange-red,  yellow  will  be  more  in- 
tense, and  green  will  appear  as  a  yellow-green.  If  red 
has  been  looked  at,  blue  will  appear  as  a  green- 
blue,  yellow  as  a  green-yellow,  and  green  will  appear 
blue.  After  green,  red  will  have  a  violet  appearance, 
yellow  will  be  more  like  orange,  blue  will  be  a  violet- 
blue,  and  orange  a  red-orange.  These  are  matters  of 
great  importance  in  the  display  of  merchandise.  The 
following  rules  should  be  remembered : 

Red  near  blue  seems  yellower. 

Red  near  yellow  seems  bluer. 

Red  near  green  seems  purer  and  brighter. 

Red  near  black  seems  duller. 

Red  near  white  seems  brighter. 

Red  near  gray  is  not  changed. 


98 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR 


99 


RED 


rom  "Color  Harmony  in  Dress"  by  Audslev    hr 
courtesy  of  Robert  M.  McBride  &  (fo/*"^*'*^'  ^^ 


Figure    lo     Diagram    Indicating   the    Primary   and    Secondary 
Colors  with  Their  Hues,  Tints,  and  Contrasts  ^ 

Other  colors  are  affected  in  similar  ways. 

These  effects  are  produced  by  the  natural  tendency 
to  see  the  complementary  of  any  color,  which  in  the 
case  of  green  intensifies  the  red  and  in  all  the  other 
cases  changes  its  color  by  mixing  their  complementary 
color  with  it 


Properties  of  Color 

Colors  may  be  distinguished  according  to  their  hue, 
their  value,  and  their  intensity. 

Hues 

The  word  hue  may  be  used  in  three  ways. 

In  writings  on  the  science  of  color  hue  signifies  the 
property  which  distinguishes  one  color  from  another. 

In  common  speech  it  is  employed  to  mean  a  particu- 
lar shade  or  degree  of  color. 

The  word  is  correctly  used  when  applied  to  the  mod- 
ification of  one  color  by  the  addition  of  another  color. 
Thus,  red-violet  and  blue-violet  are  hues  of  violet  made 
by  the  excess  of  red  or  of  blue.  In  the  diagram  the 
hues  are  found  between  the  primary  and  secondary 
colors.     Still  further  divisions  are  possible. 

Values 

The  value  or  tone  of  a  color  is  the  gradation  from 
light  to  dark  by  the  addition  of  white  in  the  lighter 
tones  and  of  black  in  the  darker  ones.  A  tone  lighter 
than  the  standard  is  properly  called  a  tint,  and  one 
darker  is  called  a  shade,  but  many  people  call  both 
tints  and  shades  "  shades."  Rose  color  is  a  tint  of  red, 
while  crimson  is  a  shade. 

In  the  diagram  the  concentric  circles  represent  the 
tints  produced  by  adding  varying  amounts  of  white; 


100 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  COLOR 


lOI 


the  numerals  above  the  line  represent  the  parts  of 
color;  those  below,  the  parts  of  white. 

Color  Scales 

The  scale  of  any  color,  whether  it  be  a  pure  color  or 
a  hue,  consists  of  all  the  tones  from  the  lightest  tint 
to  the  darkest  shade.  There  are,  for  instance,  scales 
of  green-blue,  purple-blue,  and  gray-blue. 

Intensity 

Intensity  is  the  strength  of  a  color.  The  normal  or 
standard  colors  are  in  full  intensity.  The  intensity  of 
a  color  is  reduced  by  "graying"  it  with  its  comple- 
mentary color.  By  the  addition  of  orange  to  blue,  or 
of  green  to  red,  the  color  may  be  subdued  to  half-in- 
tensity or  quarter-intensity,  and  so  on.  If  a  large 
amount  of  the  complementary  is  added,  the  original 
color  will  be  reduced  to  a  dull  gray. 

Color  Harmonies 

Harmony  in  the  combination  of  colors  may  be  of 
two  kinds : 

1.  Harmony  of  contrast. 

2.  Harmony  of  analogy  or  likeness. 

Harmony  of  contrast  is  between  colors  which  are 
most  unlike  each  other.  It  is  perfect  when  the  colors 
are  complementary.    Blue  and  orange,  or  red  and 


green,  are  perfectly  harmonious,  one  of  the  reasons  for 
the  pleasant  sensation  being  that  each  one  deepens 
the  color  of  the  other  and  makes  it  purer.  The  true 
contrasting  color  of  any  color  may  be  found  by  fol- 
lowing the  cross  lines  in  the  diagram.  The  har- 
mony of  complementary  colors  is  very  bright  if  the 
colors  are  in  full  intensity.  Grayed  or  broken  tones 
make  a  quieter  harmony. 

Harmony  by  contrast  may  also  be  secured  with  the 
hues  on  each  side  of  the  complementary  color,  as  blue 
with  red-orange,  or  yellow  or  red  with  blue-green  or 
blue-violet. 

The  harmony  of  analogy  or  likeness  is  between 
colors  of  the  same  or  related  color  scales.  They  may 
be: 

1.  Different  shades  or  tints  of  the  same  scale,  as 

light  red  and  dark  red. 

2.  Different  hues  of  the  same  color,  as  blue-green 

and  yellow-green. 

The  first  is  sometimes  called  a  mono-chromatic  or 
self -color  harmony.  The  tints  or  shades  combined 
should  have  enough  variety  to  be  distinct,  but  should 
not  be  so  different  as  to  lose  their  likeness  and  form  a 
harmony  of  contrast.  On  the  diagram  these  har- 
monies are  shown  along  each  line  from  the  full  color 
to  white. 

A  dominant  harmony  may  be  formed  by  the  use  of 


•i 


I02 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


a  number  of  hues  of  the  same  color,  as  yellow-green 
gray-green,  and  blue-green,  which  blend  because  green 
IS  dominant. 

Color  Under  Artificial  Light 

All  colors  undergo  more  or  less  change  under  arti- 
ficial  light. 

Under  gas  or  lamplight,  which  is  much  yellower 
than  daylight,  purples  and  violets  often  appear  brown. 
Some  of  the  darker  hues  are  almost  destroyed. 

Blue  is  darkened. 

Brown  is  made  warmer  in  hue. 

Green  is  yellower. 

Red,  orange,  and  yellow  are  all  brightened. 
The  inverted  gas  mantle  gives  a  somewhat  less  yel- 
low light,  and  therefore  these  effects  are  somewhat  less 
pronounced. 

The  incandescent  electric  light  gives  a  violet  hue  to 
blue,  and  a  reddish  hue  to  brown.  It  seems  to  add 
some  red  as  well  as  yellow  to  colors. 

The  arc  light  and  Welsbach  gas  mantle  have  an 
excess  of  blue,  which  is  imparted  to  colors. 


-mmmmm 


Chapter  XI 

COLOR  IN  THE  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

Necessity  for  Knowledge  of  the  Laws  of  Color  Har- 
mony 

It  is  desirable  that  all  who  sell  fabrics  should  possess 
sufficient  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  color  harmony  to 
enable  them  to  understand  not  only  how  to  display 
goods  to  the  best  advantage  by  artistic  grouping,  but 
also  to  give  helpful  advice  to  customers. 

The  suitability  of  colors  and  color  harmonies  to  the 
purpose  of  the  customer  depends  in  great  measure  on 
whether  the  material  is  to  be  worn  or  used  in  house 
decoration.  This  applies  particularly  in  the  Silk  De- 
partments, because  dress  materials  and  drapery  silks 
are  often  found  at  the  same  counter. 

Colors  in  full  intensity  and  striking  contrasts  are 
more  suitable  for  the  subdued  light  of  the  house  than 
for  the  bright  sunlight,  and  in  the  selection  of  dress 
materials  the  question  of  suitability  or  becomingness 
to  the  wearer  is  very  important. 

Colors  Best  Suited  to  Different  T3^es  of  Women 

A  gown  may  be  satisfying  as  far  as  lines  are  con- 

103 


I04 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


cerned,  but  colors  may  add  or  detract  from  its  becom- 
ingness. 

For  women  with  red  hair  black  is  the  best  color,  al- 
though they  can  wear  very  dark  blue,  blue  gray,'  or 
brown. 

For  middle-aged  women  —  especially  those  whose 
hair  is  gray  —  black,  gray,  mauve,  and  some  of  the  sil- 
very greens,  are  the  most  becoming. 

Stout  women  look  larger  in  white,  and  smaller  in 
black,  dark  blue,  dark  green,  and  dark  brown. 

A  tall,  thin  woman  should  not  wear  black  nor  very 
dark  colors. 

There  are  so  many  variations  in  the  color  of  people's 
complexions,  hair,  and  eyes,  that  it  is  hard  to  give 
general  rules.  Each  one  should  be  studied  to  see  what 
colors  bring  out  the  best  points  and  neutralize  the  less 
favorable  ones.  For  instance,  green  is  usually  becom- 
ing to  blondes  because  it  harmonizes  with  the  yellow 
in  their  hair  (by  analogy)  and  brings  out  the  rose  color 
in  the  complexion. 

The  brunette's  skin,  on  the  other  hand,  has  more 
orange  in  it.  Some  shades  of  green  may  be  worn  by 
brunettes,  but  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  the  proper  shade  of  green,  because  the 
brunette's  complexion  contains  a  great  deal  of  orange, 
and  the  green,  acting  upon  the  red  of  the  orange,  may 
readily  produce  a  brick-dust  appearance.  Green  there- 
fore is  a  risky  color  for  the  brunette ;  and  so  is  violet. 


COLOR  IN  THE  SILK  DEPARTMENT         105 

which  would  neutralize  the  yellow  of  the  orange  and 
heighten  the  red. 

The  Fashionable  Color 

Fashion  usually  dictates  the  color,  as  well  as  the 
kinds  of  fabrics,  for  each  season  and  how  they  should 
be  used.  Every  season  has  its  new  and  so-called 
"  fashionable  color,"  which  is  designed  only  to  increase 
trade.  Most  women  in  order  to  be  fashionable  adopt 
these  new  colors,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  are 
new  and  are  what  other  people  are  wearing. 

Everyone  must  know  that  color  has  its  effect  upon 
the  appearance  of  the  complexion.  Not  all  com- 
plexions look  equally  well  in  the  same  color.  Some 
may  be  improved,  while  others  may  look  very  badly. 
Yet  although  the  majority  of  women  know  this,  they 
continue  to  select  the  "  fashionable  color." 

If  women  were  only  willing  to  take  the  advice  of 
someone,  perhaps  the  salesperson,  capable  of  giving  a 
reliable  opinion,  then  the  manufacturer  or  the  dyer 
would  not  be  able  to  decide  on  any  one  color,  but  would 
produce  materials  giving  a  choice  of  colors. 

Conditions  Affecting  Color 

Since  it  is  by  light  that  colors  are  produced,  the 
color  of  a  body  is  affected  in  various  ways. 

I.  By  a  change  from  daylight  to  artificial  light,  or 
the  reverse. 


io6 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


2.  By  the  properties  of  the  material,  as  the  bright- 

ness of  the  color  varies  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  fabric,  i.e.,  silk,  wool,  etc. 

3.  Different  individuals  do  not  see  color  in  the  same 

way;  some  people  are  "color  blind,"  that  is, 
their  eyes  are  not  sensitive  to  a  particular 
color  and  they  cannot  distinguish  red  from 
green  or  rose  from  mauve. 

Effect  of  Various  Lights  on  Colors 

Some  colors  which  are  becoming  by  daylight  are  not 
so  under  artificial  light ;  and  others  —  like  green,  yel- 
low, and  some  shades  of  red  — are  more  becoming  at 
night,  as  well  as  much  more  suitable.  The  effect  is 
especially  noticeable  with  dyed  fabrics. 

Colors  selected  for  clothing  should  be  first  of  all  be- 
coming and  also  suited  to : 

The  season  of  the  year. 
The  time  of  day. 

The  function  at  which  the  dress  is  to  be  worn. 
General  use. 

Colors  for  evening  wear  should  always  be  shown 
under  artificial  light ;  for  day  wear,  under  daylight. 

Effect  of  the  Material  on  Color 

The  weave  and  the  finish  of  silk  change  the  appear- 
ance of  the  colors,  and  luster  is  often  added  in  the 


COLOR  IN  THE  SILK  DEPARTMENT        107 

finishing  process  to  enhance  the  brightness  of  the  color. 

The  manner  in  which  the  warp  and  filling  threads 
intersect  each  other,  and  also  the  frequency  with  which 
they  intersect  make  a  difference  in  the  brightness  of  the 
color,  as  well  as  in  the  smoothness  of  the  surface  of  the 
cloth.  In  a  plain  weave  where  every  thread  of  the 
warp  and  filling  intersect,  the  luster  is  not  nearly  so 
bright  as  in  the  satin  weave,  where  the  warp  threads  lie 
on  the  surface  in  almost  unbroken  lines.  A  twill 
weave  or  a  cord  produces  a  still  rougher  surface  than 
the  plain  weave  and  is  consequently  less  lustrous. 

A  good,  smooth  finish  adds  luster  to  cloth,  because 
it  increases  the  reflecting  power  of  the  material,  and 
the  brightness  of  the  color  is  thus  enhanced. 

In  the  case  of  the  raised  fibers  of  velvet  the  light 
penetrates  the  material  and  becomes  saturated  with  the 
color  before  being  reflected,  and  the  color  appears  soft 
and  subdued ;  but  when  these  raised  fibers  are  pressed 
flat  in  one  direction,  as  in  mirror  velvet,  the  light  re- 
flects from  the  surface  and  the  color  appears  brighter. 

The  luster  of  the  fabric  has  much  to  do  with  its  be- 
coming appearance.  Hard,  bright  surfaces  like  satin 
are  more  trying  than  the  deep,  rich  colors  of  velvet; 
with  many  colors  —  such  as  bright  blue,  pink,  and 
blue  white  —  which  bring  out  any  defect  in  the  texture 
of  the  skin,  it  is  advisable  to  separate  them  from  the 
skin  by  lace  or  tulle  which  grays  and  softens  the  effect 


II 


io8 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Colors  for  Household  Decoration 

In  selecting  colors  for  a  room  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  everyone  is  more  or  less  sensitive  to  the  in- 
fluence of  color.  Each  color  has  a  distinct  effect  upon 
persons  and  produces  different  sensations  in  different 
moods.  All  intense  colors,  moreover,  need  to  be  modi- 
fied. 

In  deciding  on  color  combinations  for  a  room  the  fol- 
lowing facts  must  be  considered : 

The  size  of  the  room. 

The  number  of  windows. 

The  size  of  the  windows. 

The  location  of  room  —  whether  north,  south, 
east,  or  west. 

The  kind  of  room  —  whether  living  room,  bed- 
room, etc. 

Effect  of  adjoining  room. 

One  should  remember  also  that : 

Yellow  and  its  varying  tones  will  give  light  and 
warmth.     It  is  not  needed  where  a  room  has 
plenty  of  sunlight. 
Red  will  appear  to  give  warmth.     Pure  red  is  ex- 
citing. 
Blue  will  appear  to  diminish  the  size  of  the  room. 
Color  harmonies  in  draperies  or  furniture-coverings 
may  be  very  vivid,  especially  if  the  room  is  not  bril- 
liantly lighted,  but  it  is  usually  more  satisfactory  to 


COLOR  IN  THE  SILK  DEPARTMENT         109 

have  one  dominant  color  with  harmonies  of  likeness 
prevailing,  and  only  touches  of  the  brilliant  harmonies 
of  contrast. 

If  broken  tones  or  colors  of  half -intensity  are  used, 
the  harmony  of  contrast  may  be  more  evenly  distributed 
between  the  two  colors. 

Suggestions  for  Color  Schemes 

If  a  good  color  scheme  is  desired,  there  are  three 
reliable  sources  from  which  suggestions  may  be 
gained : 

Nature  —  among  the  flowers,  the  autumn  leaves. 

the  mosses  and  lichens,  the  birds,  the  shells  and 

minerals,  the  sunset. 
Museums  —  where  there  are  wonderful  collections 

of  old  tapestries,  embroideries,  etc. 
Pictures  —  especially  among  the  Japanese  prints, 

where  color  is  simply  but  daringly  used  with 

unusual  beauty  and  quality. 


-omNNM 


ORNAMENT  AND  DESIGN 


III 


1 

i 


i 


P!  W, 


'i  h 


Chapter  XII 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT  AND 

DESIGN  ' 

Definition  of  Design 

Men  are  not  satisfied  with  making  things  that  are 
merely  useful.  They  are  also  trying  always  to  make 
useful  things  beautiful,  and  are  often  willing  to  sacri- 
fice usefulness  entirely,  if  the  thing  is  beautiful.  A 
vase  was  originally  a  vessel  to  hold  water,  but  many 
ornamental  vases  would  be  quite  unfit  for  their  original 
purpose. 

There  is  some  attempt  at  ornament  in  nearly  all 
manufactured  things.  Even  the  dust-pan  has  a  pat- 
tern on  it,  and  the  kitchen  stove  and  sink  have  orna- 
mental brackets.  The  desire  to  ornament,  or  make 
things  beautiful,  leads  to  design. 

A  design  may  be  merely  the  plan  for  anything,  but 
when  we  speak  of  "  design  "  we  usually  mean  an  orna- 
mental or  beautiful  plan. 

Kinds  of  Designs 
Designs  may  be  of  two  kinds : 

iThis  chapter,  containing  the  essential  principles  of  ornament  and  de- 
sign, was  prepared  by  the  editor  and  appears  in  several  of  the  manuals  of 
this  series. 

110 


1.  The  form  or  shape  of  an  article,  such  as  a  vase, 

a  chair,  a  dress,  or  a  hat. 

2.  Surface-decoration  or  pattern  design,  such  as 

engraving  on  metals,  or  the  woven  or  printed 
designs  in  textiles. 

Patterns,  or  flat  designs,  may  also  be  divided  into : 

1.  Structural,  those  which  are  produced  by  the 

method  of  manufacture,  such  as  mosaics  in 
jewelry,  or  woven  designs  in  textiles. 

2.  Applied,  those  which  are  put  on  after  construc- 

tion, as  painting  or  embroidery. 

Pattern  Design 

In  structural  design  the  form  of  an  article  must  be 
regulated  first  by  its  use ;  and  beauty  must  nearly  al- 
ways be  secondary  to  usefulness.  But  in  pattern  de- 
sign the  artist  has  much  more  freedom.  Yet  there  are 
limitations  and  laws  which  must  be  observed  if  the  pur- 
pose of  decoration  or  ornament  is  to  be  secured. 

Lewis  F.  Day,  one  of  the  well-known  writers  on 
pattern  design,  says,  "  The  art  of  pattern  design  con- 
sists not  in  spreading  yourself  over  a  wide  field,  but  in 
expressing  yourself  within  given  bounds,"  that  is,  the 
beauty  of  a  design  does  not  consist  in  its  elaborateness 
or  bright  colors,  but  in  its  obedience  to  the  laws  of 
design. 

Some  of  the  most  satisfactory  kinds  of  patterns  are 


I\ 


112 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


produced  by  the  methods  of  manufacture.  To  plait 
grasses  together,  to  weave  cloth,  is  to  make  patterns 
which  may  be  of  almost  endless  variety. 

Sources  of  Pattern  Design 

Nature  has  been  called  the  source  of  design,  but  we 
do  not  know  whether  men  first  made  patterns  just  for 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  repeated  lines  and  color  contrasts, 
or  whether  they  were  trying  to  imitate  what  they 
saw  around  them.     If  we  look  at  the  decorations  on 
early  pottery  or  basket-weaving,  which  were  probably 
the  first  forms  of  pattern  design,  we  shall  be  led  to  be- 
lieve that  the  first  instinct  was  ornament  and  the  imita- 
tion of  nature  was  second.     The  Greeks,  who  have 
never  been  surpassed  as  artists,  imitated  nature  very 
little  in  their  patterns,  which  usually  consisted  only  of 
beautiful  proportions  and  perfectly  balanced  repetitions 
of  graceful  lines. 

Motives  of  Design 

The  motives,  or  elements  of  design,  may  be  either 
natural,  conventional,  or  abstract. 

Natural  designs  imitate  nature  as  much  as  the  mate- 
rial will  permit. 

Conventional  designs  suggest  nature,  but  are  simpli- 
fied  and  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the  ornament  or  the 
pattern. 

Abstract  designs  are  made  up  of  repeated  lines  and 


ORNAMENT  AND  DESIGN 


"3 


patterns  which  have  no  intentional  resemblance  to 
natural  forms,  though  sometimes  it  is  hard  to  draw  a 
clear  line  between  very  much  conventionalized  nature 
and  abstract  patterns. 

Material  of  Pattern  Design 

Pattern  designs  are  made  up  of  lines,  forms,  and 
spaces,  which  must  be  arranged  in  an  orderly  manner. 
There  must  be  points  of  emphasis,  rhythm,  symmetry 
or  balance,  and  harmony  of  all  the  parts. 

Points  of  emphasis  are  those  features  of  the  design 
which  attract  the  attention.  If  all  the  elements  were 
equally  prominent,  the  design  would  be  weak  and  in- 
effective. The  points  of  emphasis  are  given  prom- 
inence by  striking  outlines,  bright  color,  or  contrasted 
features. 

Rhythm  is  the  result  of  an  arrangement  or  repetition 
of  lines  or  units  to  form  a  continuous  and  related 
movement.     Borders  are  an  example  of  rhythm. 

Balance  is  the  result  of  the  arrangement  of  the  parts 
of  the  design  so  that  one  part  will  not  be  much  more 
prominent  than  another. 

Harmony  is  the  fitness  to  purpose,  the  unity  of  all 
the  parts,  such  as  fine  proportions,  values,  and  color. 

Planning  a  Pattern 

It  may  be  supposed  that  a  pattern-designer  chooses  a 
beautiful  figure,  such  as  a  rose,  and  simply  scatters  it 


f 


t; 


114 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


I 
4; 'if 


over  the  space  it  is  to  cover,  making  such  changes  as 
he  wishes  and  repeating  it  at  his  pleasure.  This  is 
far  from  the  case.  If  he  used  that,  kind  of  freedom, 
the  design  would  be  sure  to  have  irregular  lines,  awk- 
ward spaces,  and  confusion.  It  would  lack  all  the  fea- 
tures which  make  it  design  and  not  accident. 

On  the  contrary,  the  designer  bases  the  structural 
lines  of  his  patterns  on  geometrical  spaces,  such  as  the 
square,  the  triangle,  or  the  diamond;  circles  or  other 
curved  figures  are  merely  modified  squares,  etc.  The 
square  or  diamond  is  the  customary  basis  of  Western 
design,  while  the  far  East  has  always  preferred  the 
triangle. 

The  size  and  repetition  of  the  design  depend  upon 
the  space  it  is  to  fill,  and  the  problem  of  the  designer 
is  to  make  a  plan  which  will  fill  the  space  perfectly. 
He  decides  where  the  masses  and  lines  shall  go,  where 
the  points  of  emphasis  shall  be,  and  indicates  the  bal- 
ance and  harmony  of  the  composition,  but  does  not 
work  out  the  detail.  The  size  of  his  space  determines 
the  number  of  repetitions,  as  for  instance  the  width  of 
a  textile  material.  When  he  has  blocked  out  the  pat- 
tern the  designer  sketches  in  the  lines,  and  gradually 
the  perfect  pattern  appears. 

In  repeated  patterns  it  is  necessary  to  observe  cer- 
tain rules  which  are  less  important  in  a  single  composi- 
tion.    Repeated  patterns  should  be: 

I.  Conventionalized  —  the   established    forms  are 


ORNAMENT  AND  DESIGN 


IIS 


more  pleasing  in  repetition  than  the  more 
temporary  ones. 

2.  Well-balanced  —  the  balance  good  enough  for  a 

single  composition  is  not  always  good  enough 
for  repetition. 

3.  Modest  —  repeated  patterns  should  not  be  too 

obtrusive.     There  is  greater  freedom  when 
the  pattern  is  self-colored. 

Value  of  Line  in  Patterns 

We  have  spoken  of  lines,  forms,  and  spaces  as  the 
material  for  pattern.  Most  of  the  great  artists  have 
been  masters  of  line,  yet  it  is  often  little  understood. 
"  Line  "  does  not  mean  the  outlines  of  the  figures,  but 
rather  an  effect  of  lines  along  which  the  eye  is  uncon- 
sciously carried,  whether  the  line  is  boldly  given  or 
only  suggested  by  shadows  and  masses  of  color.  We 
may  observe  the  effect  of  line  in  a  pattern  at  a  distance, 
although  it  may  not  be  so  clear  when  we  study  the 
details.  Walter  Crane  tells  us  that  line  is  a  language. 
For  example,  "Vertical  lines  express  exalted  feeling 
while  bowed  or  bent  lines  show  dejection  and  de- 
spair." 

Lines  may  be  firm,  rough,  ragged,  or  smooth  and 
flowing,  rectangular  or  curvilinear.  These  differences 
affect  the  impression  which  the  design  makes  upon  us. 
The  lines  may  also  radiate  or  spring  outward  from  a 
central  point;  they  may  be  spirals  or  scrolls  turning 


Iw 


■J    :i|)I 


ii6 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


back  in  a  mounting,  circular  fashion ;  they  may  inter- 
lace, as  in  strap  work,  or  fret  or  key  patterns,  such  as 
the  swastika. 

The  direction  of  the  line  should  harmonize  with  its 
character.  Straight  lines  steady  a  pattern  and  curv- 
ing lines  give  it  grace  and  freedom. 

One  of  the  problems  of  the  designer  is  the  "composi- 
tion of  line/'  This  may  be  described  as  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  prominent  lines  to  give  a  pleasing,  restful, 
and  harmonious  impression. 

Forms  and  Spaces 

The  forms  of  the  pattern  are  the  units  of  the  de- 
sign, as  a  natural  or  conventionalized  flower  or  a 
geometrical  figure.  Line  and  form  have  a  close  con- 
nection, though  they  do  not  mean  the  same  thing.  If 
lines  are  flowing,  the  forms  should  be  graceful;  if  the 
lines  are  angular  and  bold,  the  forms  should  incline 
more  to  the  geometrical  —  that  is,  the  lines  of  the 
figures  and  the  lines  of  the  composition  or  design  must 
harmonize. 

Two  variations  of  pattern  forms  have  come  to  us 
from  the  far  East. 

I.  Diaper  patterns,  in  which  squares,  circles,  or 
other  spaces  are  filled  tightly  with  patterns  like 
stars,  daisies,  spots,  or  fernlike  traceries 
which  usually  make  a  background  for  another 
more  prominent  pattern. 


u 


ORNAMENT  AND  DESIGN 


117 


2.  "  Inhabited  "  forms,  large  figures,  often  flowers 
or  leaves,  which  are  covered  all  over  with 
smaller  patterns.  Persian  figures  of  the  pal- 
metto, for  instance,  may  be  made  up  of  tiny 
roses  and  leaves.  The  difficulty  of  detail  in 
large  forms  is  thus  solved. 

Spaces  in  a  design  are  as  important  as  the  forms. 
The  beauty  of  a  pattern  may  be  ruined  by  awkward  and 
irregular  spaces.  If  the  figures  are  crowded  or  ill- 
balanced,  they  cannot  be  seen  to  advantage.  If  they 
are  too  far  apart  they  lose  in  eflFectiveness  and  the 
design  is  not  well  bound  together.  The  spaces  form 
the  setting  of  the  units  of  design  and  are  as  much  a  part 
of  it  as  the  forms. 

Borders  form  a  very  important  part  of  most  de- 
signs. The  border  is  the  framework  and  binds  it  to- 
gether. "  A  good  designer  is  known  by  his  borders." 
If  the  body  of  a  design  is  elaborate,  the  border  should 
be  simple;  if  the  filling  is  simple,  the  border  may  be 
elaborate. 

Borders  are  only  repeated  lengthwise  and  are  con- 
fined within  fixed  marginal  lines.  The  pattern  of  the 
border  may  run  along  the  margin  or  "stand  steady," 
that  is,  the  units  of  design  may  be  distinct  and  separate. 
These  are  called  "  stop,"  "  block,"  or  "  turn-over  "  pat- 
terns. Sometimes  the  two  types  of  borders  are  com- 
bined. 


n8 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Block  or  panel  designs  may  be  placed  at  certain  dis- 
tances apart  with  a  flowing  pattern  between  them. 
Blocks  or  panels  are  often  used  to  help  the  designer 
turn  a  corner  without  deforming  his  flowing  pattern. 


•mmmtm 


Chapter  XIII 

DESIGNS  FOR  SILK 

Varieties  of  Design 

Designs  for  textiles  are  either  woven  in  with  the 
threads  or  applied  by  printing  or  other  means  after  the 
cloth  has  been  woven.  In  silk  materials  every  known 
method  for  applying  design  may  be  found.  The  gloss 
of  satin  threads,  the  deep  pile  of  velvet,  and  the  com- 
pound weaves,  are  all  used  to  produce  patterns,  as  well 
as  yarn  of  different  colors  and  surface-decoration  with 
printing  and  embroidery. 

Elements  of  Design 

The  elements  of  the  designs  consist  of  natural,  con- 
ventionalized, or  abstract  figures  which  must  be  ar- 
ranged in  an  orderly  and  effective  manner  according  to 
the  space  to  be  filled.  For  yard  goods  the  pattern  is 
determined  by  the  width  of  the  material,  as  the  length 
may  be  indefinitely  extended. 

Classes  of  Patterns 

Patterns  consist  of  figures  in  repetition  and  may  be 

divided  into  five  classes : 

119 


J- 


I20 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


-.  ! 


1.  Rectangular 

2.  Step-repeat 

3.  Drop-repeat 

4.  Turn-over 

5.  Turn-around 

Rectangular 

Rectangular  patterns  are  the  simplest.  In  these  the 
figures  run  across  the  material  in  a  straight  line. 

Step-repeat 

Step-repeat  patterns  have  every  other  figure  a 
"  step  "  lower,  the  first,  third,  and  fifth  figures  would 
be  on  one  line  and  drawn  across  the  material,  and  the 
second,  fourth,  and  sixth  on  another. 

Drop-repeat 

Drop-repeat  patterns  do  not  move  up  and  down,  but 
each  succeeding  figure  is  a  little  lower  than  the  one  to 
the  left  or  right.  Lines  touching  corresponding  parts 
of  the  figure  would  run  diagonally  across  the  cloth. 
This  is  a  common  variation;  it  gives  more  freedom 
than  the  rectangular  or  step-repeat. 

Turn-over 

Turn-over  patterns  are  made  by  doubling  the  pattern 
over  on  a  vertical  line  so  that  the  sides  meet  exactly 
opposite  one  another.     With  a  turn-over  pattern  there 


DESIGNS  FOR  SILK 


121 


is  usually  a  center  space  in  which  the  design  is  not  re- 
versed. This  keeps  it  from  being  too  stiff  and  formal. 
Turn-overs  reduce  the  cost  of  weaving,  as  the  same 
cards,  reversed,  may  be  used  for  both  sides  of  the  pat- 
tern. 

Turn-around 

Turn-around  patterns  are  made  by  placing  the  de- 
sign in  different  positions.  It  may  be  turned  half  or 
three-quarters  around,  or  upside  down. 

The  advantage  of  these  methods  may  be  seen  by 
studying  the  accompanying  diagram  (Figure  11),  in 


Figure   11.  Arrangement  of   Rectangular  and  Drop-repeat   Pat- 
terns 

which  the  design  which  will  repeat  exactly  on  a  mate- 
rial 21  inches  wide  is  seen  to  be  limited  to  a  three-inch 
triangle,  while  a  design  io34  x  6  inches  may  be  used  in 
a  drop  repeat.  The  large  diamonds  represent  the 
space  filled  by  each  unit  of  a  pattern  with  a  drop- 


122 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


repeat,  the  small  diamonds  the  space  filled  by  a  rec- 
tangular pattern. 

Process  of  Designing 

The  design  is  first  drawn  as  it  will  look  in  the  fin- 
ished  goods.  It  must  be  suited  to  the  weaves  and  tex- 
tures  for  which  it  is  to  be  used  and  the  colors  in  which 
it  will  be  developed.  It  is  then  transferred  to  "  point " 
paper,  which  is  very  finely  ruled  in  each  direction. 
The  pattern  is  enlarged  on  this  paper  so  that  every 
space  represents  a  thread  of  warp  or  filling.  This  is 
highly  skilled  work,  as  the  working  design  must  repre- 
sent the  actual  threads  and  does  not  suggest  the  finished 
pattern  to  an  untrained  eye. 

Designs  for  silk  should  bring  out  the  beautiful  sur- 
face of  the  material,  the  depth  of  color  in  velvet,  and 
the  clear  color  due  to  the  luster  of  the  fiber.  These 
characteristics  will  make  effective  patterns  in  silk,  al- 
though in  cotton  goods  the  same  patterns  would  be 
dull  and  ugly. 

Dress  Goods  Patterns 

Designs  for  dress  goods  are  usually  much  conven- 
tionalized or  abstract.  If  natural  flowers  are  used 
they  are  very  small.  Otherwise,  unless  the  pattern  is 
self-color  it  is  too  pronounced.  In  ribbons  much  more 
freedom  may  be  allowed,  as  they  are  used  in  small 
quantities  for  decoration.     Warp-printed  patterns  may 


DESIGNS  FOR  SILK 


123 


be  less  conventional  and  abstract,  as  their  outlines  are 
hazy  and  not  aggressive. 

Suitable  Patterns  for  Dress  Goods 

Diaper  or  cill-over  patterns  after  the  oriental  fashion 
are  very  good,  especially  in  self-colored  designs. 

Dots,  stripes,  checks,  and  plaids  conform  to  the  re- 
quirements that  patterns  should  be  "  modest,"  espe- 
cially for  clothing,  but  rich  and  varied  patterns  are 
suitable  to  rich  materials,  such  as  brocades. 

Brilliant  patterns,  which  would  be  very  inappropriate 
and  tiresome  if  worn  where  they  would  be  constantly 
seen,  may  be  used  for  linings. 

Elaborate  borders  are  also  in  good  taste  for  hand- 
some materials,  as  they  contrast  well  with  a  plain  satin 
or  velvet  ground. 

Sport  silks  usually  have  conventional  designs,  often 
developments  from  Egyptian  or  Greek  motifs,  some- 
times from  Chinese  or  Japanese,  all  of  which  are  effec- 
tive in  the  bright  colors  and  strong  contrasts  of  these 
goods. 

Drapery  Silks 

Drapery  silks  have  a  much  wider  range  of  pattern 
than  those  for  dress  goods.  They  often  have  festoons 
or  baskets  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  figures,  especially  of 
birds.  They  are  often  made  with  turn-over  designs. 
Many  draperies  have  Persian  patterns  with  large  fig- 
ures "  inhabited  "  by  smaller  ones. 


124 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Values  of  Designs  That  "  Take  " 

Designers  for  fine  textiles  are  trained  artists  who  re- 
ceive large  salaries.  Some  of  the  finest  artistic  talent 
in  France  and  England  is  employed  in  this  way.  A 
pattern  that  "  takes  "  may  mean  a  forttme  to  the  mill 
that  produces  it. 

The  mills,  therefore,  have  their  own  pattern-makers 
and  guard  their  designs  very  jealously.  These  designs 
cannot  be  protected  by  patents,  and  mills  copy  the  de- 
signs of  their  competitors  until  foreign  manufacturers 
have  complained  that  American  mills  appropriate  their 
patterns  as  soon  as  the  goods  are  placed  on  the  market. 
As  the  copies  are  made  in  inferior  cloth  the  pattern 
is  cheapened  and  is  no  longer  popular  in  the  more 
expensive  goods.  This  accounts  for  many  heavy 
losses  in  novelty  materials. 

Some  agencies  in  Paris  and  other  fashion  centers 
of  Europe  make  a  business  of  supplying  the  new  pat- 
terns to  American  manufacturers  who  subscribe  for 
them  by  the  year  or  by  the  hundred.  It  then  is  a  mat- 
ter of  business  shrewdness  to  place  the  pattern  on  the 
market  early  enough  to  supply  the  season's  trade,  but 
not  soon  enough  to  give  competitors  a  chance  to  copy  it. 

History  of  Designs  for  Silk 

The  fact  that  silk  lends  itself  so  readily  to  artistic 
treatment  was  taken  advantage  of  long  ago.  Each 
historic  period  since  the  twelfth  century,  when  the 


DESIGNS  FOR  SILK 


125 


Arabian  weavers  first  worked  their  looms  in  Sicily,  has 
produced  its  distinctive  style  of  design,  which  may  be 
studied  and  more  or  less  imitated  by  modern  designers. 

Italian  Art 

In  the  fifteenth  century  Italian  art  reached  the  high- 
est degree  of  perfection,  both  in  design  and  technique, 
and  the  influence  extended  all  over  Europe.  The  beau- 
tiful Flemish  tapestries  and  figured  and  brocaded  vel- 
vets show  the  influence  of  the  Italian  silk  textiles. 

French  Skill 

The  early  French  silk  damasks  can  barely  be  distin- 
guished from  those  of  Italy.  Soon,  however,  the 
French  showed  an  individuality  of  their  own.  Their 
designs  were  of  a  delicate,  lacelike  character,  with 
sprays  of  foliage  and  bouquets  gracefully  intertwined 
with  trellis-Hke  forms.  During  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury a  wavy  ribbon  was  a  feature  of  French  design 
and  with  it  stems  and  flowers  were  mingled,  sprays 
and  garlands  of  flowers  were  gracefully  arranged,  and 
the  French  convention  of  the  rose  was  first  developed. 

About  this  time  came  the  exodus  of  the  most  skilful 
French  silk  weavers  to  England,  and  they  carried  with 
them  this  type  of  design.  On  that  account  the  English 
and  French  woven  silks  of  that  period  are  much  alike. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  French  artists  pro- 
duced in  their  designs  not  only  flowers,  birds,  butter- 


II 


126 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


flies,  but  also  figures  and  even  landscapes.  Toward 
the  end  of  this  period,  however,  the  heavy  brocades 
and  damasks  were  superseded  by  soft,  gauzelike  fab- 
rics and  simple  classic  designs  were  used. 

Jacquard  Weaves 

In  the  early  nineteenth  century  came  a  change  in  the 
technique  of  silk  weaving,  the  power-loom  was  intro- 
duced and  the  Jacquard  machine  for  silk  pattern-weav- 
ing took  the  place  of  the  hand-loom.  Art  in  silk  weav- 
ing seems  to  have  declined  and  began  to  revive  only 
when  a  general  system  of  education  in  design  was  es- 
tablished. 

By  the  end  of  the  century  Great  Britain  was  fore- 
most in  the  design  and  manufacture  of  fabrics  for 
house  decoration,  but  France  is  now,  and  has  been  for 
three  centuries,  the  leader  in  designing  and  manufac- 
turing the  most  beautiful  and  costly  dress  fabrics. 


Chapter  XIV 
SILK  YARD  GOODS  1 

Classification 

Some  of  the  silks  mentioned  in  this  chapter  are  little 
used  at  the  present  time,  but  many  of  them  may  still 
be  found  among  old  possessions  and  as  most  of  them 
have  given  good  service  in  times  past  it  is  well  to  have 
their  names  appear  here.  Oftentimes  silks  which  have 
not  been  used  for  a  number  of  years  return  to  style 
again. 

Armure 

This  is  the  French  word  for  armor,  a  name  sug- 
gested by  the  style  of  weaving,  which  produces  a  fine 
pebbled  surface,  or  small  diamond-shaped  figures. 
The  weave  is  an  imitation  of  the  armor  of  feudal  times, 
•which  was  made  of  metal  plates  overlapping  each  other 
like  fish  scales,  allowing  the  armor  to  conform  to  every 
movement  of  the  body. 

Batiste 

This  is  a  fine,  sheer  fabric,  sometimes  made  of  silk, 

1  See  glossary  in  Appendix  for  pronunciation  of  French  words  not  given 
in  this  chapter. 

127 


4 


128 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


but  more  often  of  cotton  or  linen.  (See  manual  for 
the  "Cotton  and  Linen  Departments.")  It  is  some- 
times woven  with  small  dotted  effects. 

Bengaline 

The  name  of  this  fabric  comes  from  Bengal,  India. 
It  is  a  plain,  heavy,  corded  fabric  with  silk  warp 
threads.  The  cord  is  formed  by  weft  threads,  some- 
times of  silk,  but  usually  of  worsted,  running  across 
the  cloth.  These  are  entirely  covered  by  the  silk  warp 
threads  so  that  none  of  the  woo!  is  exposed  and  the 
fabric  shows  only  silk  threads  on  its  surface. 

Bolting  Cloth 

This  is  a  fine,  open-mesh  silk  cloth  of  which  bolters, 
or  sieves,  for  sifting  flour  are  made.  It  is  also  used 
for  fine  fancy  work. 

Brocade 

This  is  a  rich  silk  fabric,  having  raised  figures  of 
flowers,  foliage,  or  other  designs.  These  designs  are 
often  woven  in  gold  and  silver.  Brocades  may  also 
be  woven  of  any  material  or  combination  of  colors. 

Brocades  are  classed  as : 

Gold-thread  brocades 
Silk-damask  brocades 

Gold  and  silver  threads  are  prepared  in  different 
ways.     In  olden  times  a  flat,  gilded  ribbon  was  used 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


129 


over  a  silk  thread  which  was  of  a  color  as  near  that  of 
the  metal  as  possible.  Skill  was  required  to  wind  the 
metal  around  the  silk  so  that  the  edges  would  lie  as 
close  as  possible  without  overlapping.  In  Milan,  Italy, 
a  secret  process  was  used  whereby  the  thread  was 
golden  on  one  side  only.  Flat  threads  of  copper  were 
also  made.  The  Chinese  used  bands  of  gilded  paper 
upon  the  silk  thread. 

At  first  the  name  brocade  was  given  only  when  the 
flowers  or  ornaments  were  of  gold  or  silver,  but  later 
it  was  used  even  when  no  metallic  threads  were  em- 
ployed. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  brocades  were  manufac- 
tured in  Lucca,  Italy.  The  manufacturers  were  driven 
out  of  Lucca  by  the  governor  and  went  to  another 
place,  where  they  built  a  new  factory  and  invented  a 
modification  of  the  brocade,  which  they  called  damask. 

Japan  has  for  centuries  taken  the  first  place  in  the 
production  of  figured  silks  of  all  kinds,  including  bro- 
cades. 

Broche 

This  is  a  French  term  for  brocade. 

Cachemire  de  Sole 

(French;  pronounced  "cashmeer  de  swah.")     This 
•  silk  fabric  has  a  fine  twill  and  is  finished  to  look  like 
cashmere. 


vi 


I.! 


130 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Changeable  Silk 
See  "  Glace/'  below. 

Charmeuse 
See  "  Satin  charmeuse  "  under  "  Satin/'  below. 

Chiffon 

(  French. )  This  is  a  thin,  sheer,  transparent,  open- 
mesh,  plain-weave  material.  Both  warp  and  filling  are 
hard-twisted  single  threads.  It  is  piece-dyed,  some- 
times printed  in  dainty  patterns,  and  given  a  soft  finish. 

The  word  chiffon  when  used  with  other  materials 
signifies  light  weight  and  soft  finish,  as  *' chiffon  taf- 
feta," and  "  chiffon  velvet/* 

Chiffon  Taffeta 
See  "  Taffeta,  chiffon  "  below. 

China  Silk 

This  is  a  plain-weave  silk  with  a  beautiful,  natural 
luster.  It  is  supposed  to  be  made  on  the  hand-looms 
in  China  and  is  easily  recognized  by  imperfections 
which  are  always  found  in  hand-spinning  and  hand- 
loom  weaving. 

The  name  China  silk  has  been  used  in  the  United 
States  for  a  class  of  machine-made  silks,  usually  in 
plain  colors,  although  sometimes  printed,  made  in  im- 
itation of  the  genuine  China  silks. 


l-iliUJilUli,-! 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


131 


Chine  SUks 

In  these  silks  the  design  is  somewhat  faint  and  in- 
distinct, due  to  the  fact  that  the  pattern  is  printed  on 
the  warp  threads  only. 

Cloth  of  Gold 

Cloth  of  gold  has  a  golden  effect  from  being  heavily 
interwoven  with  tinsel.  This  splendid  fabric  is  first 
mentioned  in  Exodus  39;  3,  "and  they  did  beat  the 
gold  into  thin  plates  and  cut  it  into  wires  to  work  it  in 
the  blue,  and  in  the  purple,  and  in  the  scarlet,  and  in  the 
fine  linen  with  cunning  work." 

In  the  early  weaving  of  cloth  of  gold  both  round 
wires  and  flat  strips  of  gold  were  used.  The  flat 
strips  were  wound  around  silk  threads.  The  cloth  was 
generally  woven  by  using  a  thread  of  silk  and  a  thread 
of  gold,  although  there  were  instances  where  it  was 
made  entirely  of  gold  thread. 

Although  cloth  of  gold  was  formerly  used  almost 
exclusively  by  the  nobility  and  by  the  church,  it  has  in 
recent  years  been  made  of  cheaper  material  and  is  more 
generally  worn. 

Crepe 

Crepe  is  a  French  word  derived  from  the  Latin, 
crispus,  meaning  curled.  It  is  a  thin,  light-weight, 
crinkled  fabric. 


4 


132 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Crepe  Charmeuse 

This  soft,  rich,  piece-dyed  fabric  has  a  dull  luster 
and  a  glovelike  feel,     h  is  made  with  a  satin  weave. 

Crepe  de  Chine 

This  is  a  soft,  light-weight  silk  with  a  finely  crinkled 
effect.  It  is  plain  woven  with  raw  or  thrown  silk  warp 
and  with  the  filling  of  alternating  twists  of  hard-twist 
tram.  It  is  piece-dyed  and  often  printed.  This  silk  is 
popular  for  underwear  and  also  for  waists  and  dresses. 

Crepe  Meteor 

This  is  a  smooth,  lustrous  sik  fabric  with  a  fine  twill 
face. 

Damask 

This  is  a  figured  silk  in  which  the  figures  and  the 
ground  are  of  contrasting  weaves.  It  is  usually  made 
with  a  satin  ground,  the  figures  being  woven  in  by 
means  of  the  Jacquard  loom. 

Dresden 

See  "  Chine,"  above. 

EoHenne 

This  is  a  sheer,  finely  corded  fabric  of  silk,  silk  and 
wool,  or  silk  and  cotton. 

Epinglc 
This  is  a  French  word  meaning  a  slender  pin  or 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


133 


wire.  It  is  a  firm  fabric  woven  with  fine  cords  forming 
cross  ribs.  Sometimes  it  is  woven  with  single  cords 
at  regular  intervals  and  sometimes  there  are  two  or 
three  cords  together  in  groups  at  uneven  distances 
apart.     This  silk  is  used  for  ribbons  and  cravats. 

Faille 

(French;  pronounced  "  fy-e.")  This  is  a  plain, 
soft,  ribbed  silk  with  small,  flat  ribs. 

Faille  Frangaise 

(French ;  pronounced  "  fy-e  frong-saize.")  This  is 
a  faille  silk  made  in  France.  It  has  two  or  more  picks 
in  a  shed ;  these  are  held  in  position  by  a  special  binder 
warp. 

Foulard 

Foulard  is  a  French  word  meaning  silk  handker- 
chief ;  the  silk  was  originally  used  for  handkerchiefs 
only.  It  is  a  soft,  thin  dress  fabric.  It  is  usually  a 
two-and-two  twill  weave,  although  it  is  sometimes 
plain.  It  is  piece-dyed  and  usually  printed.  The  de- 
signs are  large  or  small  according  to  the  prevailing 
style. 

Gauze 

This  fabric  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  Gaza 
in  Palestine,  an  important  cloth-weaving  center  in  an- 
cient days.     It  is  a  thin,  transparent  silk  fabric  woven 


^t 


134 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


by  the  gauze  or  leno  weave.     Gauze  is  dressed  or  sized 
while  it  is  stretched  and  then  dried. 

Georgette  Crepe 

This  is  a  thin,  sheer  silk  having  a  fine  crepe  eflfect  in 
the  weave. 

Glace 

This  French  word,  meaning  glazed,  is  often  ap- 
plied to  silks  made  of  two  tones,  that  is,  with  the  warp 
of  one  color  and  the  weft  of  another.  These  are 
sometimes  called  "  shot "  silks  and  sometimes  **  change- 
able "  silks. 

Grenadine 

This  is  a  plain  or  figured,  open-mesh  dress  fabric 
with  gauze  or  leno  weave.  Grenadine  may  also  be 
made  of  worsted  and  cotton  as  well  as  silk.  It  some- 
times has  stripes  of  satin. 

Gros  de  Londres 

(French;  pronounced  "  gro  de  londr,"  meaning 
grain  of  London.)  This  is  a  silk  dress  fabric  with 
cross  ribs,  either  with  alternating  coarse  and  fine  ribs 
or  ribs  of  two  different  colors. 

Grosgrain 

(French;  pronounced  *'gro-gran.*')  The  name  of 
this  fabric  comes  from  the  French  gros,  meaning  a 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


135 


thick  grain.     It  is  firm,  close-woven,  fine-corded  or 
grained,  and  finished  with  only  a  slight  luster. 


Habutai 

This  is  a  pure  silk  fabric  made  in  Japan. 
"  Japanese  Silk  "  below.) 


(See  also 


India  Silk 

This  name  is  given  to  the  plain-woven  silk  manu- 
factured in  India  on  hand-looms.  It  has  a  beautiful 
natural  luster  and  resembles  China  Silk  and  Japanese 
silk. 

Jacquard  Silks 

Silks  which  have  figures  woven  by  means  of  a 
Jacquard  loom  are  sometimes  called  Jacquard  silks, 
although  they  are  better  known  as  brocades. 

Japanese  Silk 

This  is  a  plain-woven,  smooth,  soft,  lustrous  silk 
manufactured  in  Japan.  It  may  be  dyed  in  plain  col- 
ors or  printed,  but  a  great  deal  of  it  comes  as  white, 
glossy,  and  shimmering.  The  name  covers  a  variety 
of  Japanese  silks,  but  is  most  customarily  applied  to 
habutai.     (See  also  "  Kikai  "  below.) 

Jersey  Cloth 

Silk  jersey  cloth  is  a  very  soft,  knitted  fabric.     It  is 


136 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


used  for  dresses,  undergarments,  and  especially  for 
gloves. 

Kikai 

This  is  a  Japanese  silk,  not  so  fine  nor  of  so  good  a 
quality  as  habutai. 

Liberty  Satin 

This  silk  takes  its  name  from  Liberty  and  Company 
of  Paris  and  London.  It  is  a  soft,  satin  fabric,  made 
on  8  or  12  shafts,  having  raw  silk  warp  and  spun  silk 
filfing.     It  is  piece-dyed. 

Louisine 

This  silk  fabric  has  a  coarse,  uneven  surface  made 
by  weaving  two  or  more  warp  threads  together  in  a 
plain  weave. 

Marquisette 

This  sheer,  plain-weave  fabric  has  an  open  mesh 
made  with  a  gauze  or  leno-weave. 

Matelasse 

These  silks  have  a  raised  pattern.  They  are  usually 
of  one  color  and  have  a  rich  flowered  pattern  showing 
only  by  its  slight  relief  or  embossed  appearance. 

Mervcilleux 
See  "  Satin  merveilleux  "  under  "  Satin  ''  below. 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


137 


Messaline 

Messaline  is  a  fine,  light-weight,  S-shaft  satin,  very 
soft  and  brilliant.     The  back  also  has  a  luster. 

Moire 

This  is  the  French  word  for  clouded  or  watered 
silks.  As  explained  in  Chapter  VII,  corded  silks  are 
the  only  ones  which  can  have  the  moire  or  watered 
finish. 

Moire  Antique 

In  making  moire  antique  the  pattern  is  engraved  on 
a  brass  roller  and  the  material  passed  under  great  pres- 
sure between  it  and  another  roller  which  has  a  plain 
surface.     This  is  sometimes  called  "  long  moire." 

The  same  method  is  also  applied  to  moire  ribbons. 

Mousseline  de  Soie 

(French;  pronounced  "  moo-sel-een  de  swah.") 
The  name  comes  from  the  city  of  Mosul  near  the  site 
of  Nineveh.  It  is  a  sheer,  soft  fabric  of  silk,  similar 
to  chiffon,  but  of  more  open  weave. 

Organdie 

This  is  a  light-weight,  transparent,  somewhat  stiff 
silk  material. 

Ottoman 
The  name  of  this  fabric  comes  from  the  Ottoman  or 


138 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


the  Turkish  Empire.  It  is  a  heavy,  plain  dress  fabric 
with  large  cords  extending  from  selvage  to  selvage. 
The  filling  or  cords  may  be  of  silk,  wool,  or  cotton. 

Peau  de  Cygnc 

(French;  pronounced  "  po  de  seen";  meaning 
swan's  skin.)  This  is  closely  woven,  satin-weave 
.fabric  of  soft,  lustrous  finish. 

Peau  de  Sole 

(French;  pronounced  " po  de  swah  " ;  meaning  silk- 
skin.)  This  soft-finished,  satiny  dress  fabric  has  a 
dull  luster  and  somewhat  grainy  appearance.  It  comes 
in  plain  colors.  The  best  grades  are  double-faced, 
that  is,  they  are  finished  on  both  sides  alike,  while  the 
cheaper  grades  are  single-faced,  finished  on  one  side 
only. 

Pekin  Stripe 

This  fabric  has  strong  contrasting  stripes  which  are 
usually  of  satin  and  grosgrain  alternating. 

Plush 

Plush  is  a  pile  fabric  with  a  much  longer  pile  than 
velvet.  The  pile  may  be  silk,  worsted,  or  mohair. 
Silk  is  used  in  the  seal-skin  plush,  an  imitation  of  seal- 
skin. 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


139 


Pongee 

This  is  a  thin,  soft,  washable  silk  fabric  woven  from 
the  natural-colored  silk  of  the  cocoons  of  the  wild  silk- 
worm which  feeds  upon  oak  leaves.  Formerly  the 
entire  supply  of  this  silk  was  imported  from  China  and 
Japan,  where  it  was  woven  on  the  hand-looms,  but  it  is 
now  produced  in  the  United  States. 

The  finest  kinds,  which  are  bleached,  dyed,  or  printed 
after  importation,  are  known  in  the  trade  as  China 
silks. 

Pongee  may  be  a  mixture  of  wild  and  cultivated  silk. 

Poplin 

This  is  a  soft,  light-weight  fabric  with  a  fine  cord 
effect.  It  is  made  with  a  plain  weave  and  has  a  silk 
warp  and  a  cotton  or  a  wool  filling. 

Rep 

Rep  is  a  corded  fabric  and  its  name  is  a  corruption 
of  the  word  ribs.  The  cords  sometimes  run  crosswise 
of  the  fabric,  when  only  the  warp  is  seen,  and  some- 
times lengthwise,  when  only  the  filling  which  makes  the 
ribs  is  seen. 

Satin 

This  is  a  silk  fabric  having  a  high  luster.  The  man- 
ner of  weaving  (see  Chapter  V)  is  the  principal  reason 
for  the  luster,  which  is  enhanced : 


I* 


140  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

1.  By  the  quality  of  silk  used  —  better  silk  pro- 

duces a  better  luster. 

2.  In  the  finishing  process  —  the  pressing  of  the 

fabric  between  hot  rollers  or  the  calendering 
process  adds  a  finishing  luster  to  the  material. 

Satin  is  the  typical  representative  of  the  satin  weave. 

It  is  said  that  satin  was  made  first  in  China,  but  it  is 
known  to  have  been  made  in  England  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  and  was  probably  made  in 
France  and  Spain  before  that  time.  At  this  early  time, 
probably  because  of  its  high  price,  it  was  little  used, 
but  by  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  in  more  general 
use. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  satin.    Among  these 

are: 

Satin  charmeuse  is  a  light-weight,  piece-dyed,  lus- 
trous satin  having  a  hard-twisted  warp  and  usually  a 
spun  silk  filling. 

Satin,  cotton-back  is  a  lining  satin  with  a  raw  silk 
warp  and  cotton  filling,  piece-dyed. 

Satin  damask  has  elaborate  designs,  sometimes  in 
velvet. 

Satin  de  chine  is  a  soft  satin  with  a  crepelike  finish. 

Satin  de  lyons  (French;  pronounced  "  de  lee-on  ", 
meaning  satin  of  Lyons),  is  a  fine  quality  of  satin  made 
at  Lyons,  France.  It  is  all-silk,  skein-dyed,  and  very 
lustrous.     Another  variety  of  the  same  name  has  a 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


141 


V"! 


twilled  back,  is  much  cheaper,  thinner,  has  less  luster, 
and  is  used  to  some  extent  for  fine  linings. 

Satin,  double-faced  is  a  heavy,  reversible  satin,  that 
is,  both  sides  alike,  made  by  having  a  back  warp  as  well 
as  a  face  warp. 

Satin  duchesse  (French;  pronounced  "doo-shess") 
is  a  rich  quality  and  heavy  grade  of  all-silk  satin  dress 
fabric,  originally  made  in  black  only  and  without  a 
pattern. 

Satin  faqonne  has  a  Jacquard  pattern  on  a  satin 
ground. 

Satin  merveillenx  (French;  pronounced  "  mair-vay- 
yeh  " ;  meaning  marvelous  satin )  is  a  fine,  close-twilled, 
satin- faced  silk  dress  fabric  having  a  glossy  finish. 
The  twill  is  very  imperceptible. 

Satin  regence  (French;  pronounced  **  ray-zhans") 
is  one  of  the  most  costly  of  silk  dress  fabrics.  It  has 
a  rich  satin  surface  with  fine  sunken  lines  extending 
across  from  selvage  to  selvage. 

Satin  rhadame  (French;  pronounced  "  rad-am  "),  is 
a  satin  the  surface  of  which  is  broken  by  fine  twilled 
lines  which  extend  diagonally  across  the  surface ;  it  is 
made  with  silk  or  cotton-back. 

Satin  royal  is  a  very  fine  and  expensive  dress  fabric 
made  of  pure  silk  and  having  a  satin  finish  on  both 
sides.  Each  face  has  fine  twilled  or  sunken  lines  ex- 
tending diagonally  across  the  surface  of  the  material, 
as  in  satin  rhadame. 


142 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Satin  surah  is  a  medium  heavy  dress  material  with  a 
twilled  surface  and  a  satin  finish. 

Satin  taffeta  is  a  fabric  with  a  satin  weave  on  one 
side  and  a  taffeta  weave  on  the  other. 

Shantung 

This  silk  is  named  from  the  province  of  Shantung, 
China,  where  it  is  made.  It  is  a  rough  plain-weave 
fabric  made  from  tussah,  or  wild  silk.  It  is  a  heavier 
grade  than  pongee. 

Shot  Silks 
See  "  Glace  "  above. 

Silk  Serge 

This  has  a  twill  weave  and  is  similar  to  surah. 

Surah 

This  fabric  is  named  from  Surat,  India,  where  it 
was  first  made.     It  is  a  light,  soft,  twilled  silk. 

Taffeta 

The  word  taffeta  is  derived  from  the  Persian  taftah, 
to  spin.  This  is  a  thin,  glossy  silk  fabric,  either  plain- 
woven  or  cross-ribbed,  with  cords  so  fine  as  to  appear 
plain-woven.  It  is  made  of  skein-dyed  silk.  The 
name  was  formerly  applied  to  all  plain  silks  and  is 
supposed  to  be  an  example  of  the  first  kind  of  silk- 
weaving  known. 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 


143 


Besides  the  plain  taffetas  there  are  checked  and 
flowered  taffetas,  the  style  of  which  changes  with  the 
season;  other  kinds  of  taffetas  are : 

Chiffon  taffeta,  a  taffeta  of  good  quality  which  is 
subjected  to  much  heat  and  pressure  in  the  fin- 
ishing process  so  that  it  is  very  soft  and  lus- 
trous. 

Glace  taffeta,  a  taffeta  in  which  the  warp  and  fill- 
ing are  of  contrasting  colors,  giving  a  "  shot " 
effect. 

Tulle 

This  fabric  is  named  for  the  town  of  Tulle,  France. 
It  is  a  plain,  fine,  silk  net,  with  a  small  mesh. 

Tussah,  Tussur,  or  Tussore 

Tussah  silk  is  a  tan  or  light  brown  (natural)  colored 
silk  made  from  the  cocoons  of  the  wild  silkworms. 

Vclour 

This  is  a  velvety  material  made  of  coarse  wool  yam 
and  silk,  woven  like  plush  with  a  coarse,  stiff  pile. 

The  name  velour  is  the  French  for  velvet  and  is  ap- 
plied to  a  great  variety  of  fabrics  which  have  a  velvety 
finish. 

Velvet 

The  name  comes  from  the  Italian  velluto,  meaning 


inll 


144 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


shaggy.  This  fabric  has  a  short,  soft,  thick  pile  face 
and  a  plain  back.  It  may  be  all-silk  or  silk-and-cotton. 
A  great  deal  of  spun  silk  is  used  for  velvets.  (See 
also  Chapter  XV.) 

Voile 

This  is  a  sheer,  semitransparent,  plain-weave  fabric 
of  silk,  wool,  or  cotton,  sometimes  ornamented  with 
stripes  or  figures. 

Novelty  Silks 

New  silks  with  new  names  or  old  silks  with  new 
names  are  constantly  appearing.  Often  different 
manufacturers  have  different  names  for  the  same  silk. 
Among  some  of  the  new  names  are: 

Will  o'  the  Wisp 
Crepe  Kokette 
Samara  Prints 
Crepe  Velour 
Mayflower  Prints 
Boiling  Prints 
Satin  Finish 
Satin  Arcadia 
Taffeta  Soiree 
Satin  Majestic 

Model  silks  may  be  seen  in  the  shops  each  season, 
bearing  the  label  of  some  famous  French  dressmaker, 
who  has  used  and  in  many  cases  designed  that  silk. 


^ 


SILK  YARD  GOODS 

Some  of  the  names  frequently  seen  are : 
Callot 
Cheruit 
Jenny 
Paquin 
Worth 
Bulloz 


145 


i  ■ 

I} 


Chapter  XV 

THE  VELVET  DEPARTMENT 

Varieties  of  Velvets 

The  Velvet  Department  is  usually  a  part  of  or  near 
the  silk  yard  goods  department.  Although  velvet  fab- 
rics are  used  to  some  extent  all  the  year  round,  they 
are  in  most  demand  in  the  colder  months  and  their 
popularity  also  depends  upon  fashion. 

In  this  department  are  found  all  pile-woven  fabrics, 
namely : 

Velvets 
Plushes 
Velveteens 
Corduroys 

These  materials  range  in  width  from  1 8  to  45  inches. 

Uncut  velvet  is  velvet  made  with  a  looped  pile  which 
is  left  uncut. 

Mirror  velvet  is  velvet  which  has  had  the  pile  pressed 
down  flat. 

Panne  velvet  is  a  light-weight  velvet  with  the  pile 

flattened  down. 

Chiffon  velvet  is  also  pressed  between  rollers,  but  not 

146 


THE  VELVET  DEPARTMENT 


147 


! 


so  flat  as  mirror  velvet.  The  pressing  gives  it  a  beau- 
tiful shaded  luster. 

Cotton  velvets  or  velveteens,  which  are  made  en- 
tirely of  cotton,  are  very  little  affected  by  pressure,  and 
after  a  time  the  pile  springs  back  and  resumes  its  plain 
appearance. 

Behring  seal  is  the  name  of  a  pile  fabric  suitable  for 

cloaks  and  suits. 

Velvets  are  also  made  in  a  variety  of  fancy  patterns, 
as  stripes,  shot  effects,  and  various  embossed  and  fig- 
ured designs. 

Plush 

The  difference  between  plush  and  velvet  is  in  the 
length  of  the  pile.  If  the  pile  is  longer  than  one-eighth 
of  an  inch,  the  fabric  is  called  plush. 

Tussah  silk  is  very  largely  used  in  plushes  and  the 
longer  pile  fabrics  because  of  its  strong  elastic  fibers, 
lustrous  quality,  and  softness.  It  is  especially  suited 
to  the  imitation  of  seal  and  other  furs.  Even  the  dyed 
and  tipped  effect  of  the  genuine  seal  may  be  produced. 

Some  American  manufacturers  who  have  been  im- 
able  to  obtain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  tussah  yarns  from 
England  have  erected  their  own  spinning  plants. 

Wool  and  cotton  are  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
imitation  furs.  Artificial  silk  has  been  successfully 
woven  into  pile  fabrics. 


148 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Qualities  of  Velvets 

All  inexpensive  velvets  have  a  cotton  back,  but  if  the 
pile  is  thick  the  back  does  not  show.  A  cheap  velvet 
with  a  thin  pile  will  show  the  back; 

Velvet  with  a  silk  back  is  expensive.  It  has  a  glossy 
finish,  is  stiffer  than  the  cottonrback  velvet  although 
lighter  in  weight,  and  the  foundation  does  not  show  on 
the  right  side  if  the  velvet  is  folded  so  that  the  pile 
separates. 

It  is  often  better  to  use  a  good  velveteen  of  fine  luster 
and  close  pile  than  a  poor  velvet  which  has  a  thin  pile. 

History 

Nothing  is  definitely  known  of  the  country  from 
which  velvet  first  came  nor  of  the  people  who  were  in- 
genious enough  to  plan  the  method  of  weaving  velvet. 
It  may  have  come  from  Central  Asia  or  perhaps  from 
China.  It  was  not  until  the  fourteenth  century  that 
any  historical  mention  is  made  of  the  fabric. 

Its  earliest  uses  were  for  royal  and  state  robes,  eccle- 
siastical vestments,  and  splendid  hangings.  The  mate- 
rial was  especially  fitted  for  these  purposes  because  of 
its  rich  depth  of  color  and  its  soft  and  graceful  folds. 

In  medieval  times  the  Italian  velvets  were  among 
the  most  magnificent.  Different  effects  were  produced 
in  these  velvets  by  changing  the  length  of  the  pile  on 
the  same  fabric,  that  is,  by  having  piles  of  different 
lengths;  by  brocading  with  plain  silk,  with  uncut  pile, 


< 


U'' 


THE  VELVET  DEPARTMENT 


149 


or  with  gold  tissue;  and  also  by  varying  the  color  of 
the  pile.  At  this  early  period  the  most  expensive  vel- 
vets were  made  in  Genoa,  Florence,  and  Venice. 

The  first  velvet  mill  in  America  was  built  in  1865, 
but  since  the  enterprise  was  unsuccessful  it  was  given 
up  after  a  short  time,  and  until  comparatively  recent 
years  velvets  used  in  the  United  States  have  been  of 
foreign  manufacture. 

Centers  of  Industry 

Genoa  from  medieval  times  to  the  present  day  has 
produced  vast  quantities  of  rich  velvets. 

Crefelt  and  Lyons  are  the  modem  centers  of  manu- 
facture. 

In  the  United  States  velvets  are  now  made  in  Con- 
necticut and  in  New  Jersey. 


Chapter  XVI 

THE  RIBBON  DEPARTMENT 

Varieties  of  Ribbons 

In  the  Ribbon  Department  may  be  found  all  the 
combinations  of  color  and  weave  seen  in  the  Silk  De- 
partment and  some  additional  varieties.  The  weaves 
and  styles  of  ribbons  comprise: 


Taffetas 

Moires 

Glaces 

Satins 

Satin-and-failles 

Gauze 

Ottomans 

Velvets 

Grosgrains 

Velours 


Double-faced  satins 
Velvet-and-satins 
Shot  or  changeable  silks 
Yarn-dyed 
Piece-dyed 

Dresden  or  chine  (warp- 
printed  ) 
Jacquard  designs 
Surface-printed 


Materials 

Ribbons  may  contain  cotton,  they  may  be  weighted, 
and  they  often  have  tinsel  threads  woven  into  them, 
but  the  principal  material  is  silk,  and  the  quality  used 

ISO 


THE  RIBBON  DEPARTMENT 


151 


is  generally  raw  silk.     Artificial  silk,  mixed  with  cot- 
ton, may  be  found  in  novelty  ribbons. 

Weaving 

Ribbon  looms  are  made  to  carry  several  ribbons, 
often  from  twenty  to  thirty,  with  a  separate  shuttle  for 
each  one.  These  shuttles  are  carried  back  and  forth, 
from  one  side  of  each  narrow  warp  to  the  other,  by 
means  of  a  special  mechanical  device. 

Taffeta,  moire,  satin,  and  many  other  ribbon  weaves 
are  exactly  like  the  broad  silks  from  which  they  are 
named,  but  there  are  many  double-faced  ribbons  which 
do  not  correspond  to  any  broad  silks.  Double-faced 
satin,  and  velvet-and-satin  are  the  most  popular  of 
these.  Most  of  the  broad  velvets  used  are  cotton-back, 
but  the  best  velvet  ribbon  is  satin-back.  Cheap  grades 
are  always  cotton-back.  These  are  all  woven  with  a 
double-cloth  weave. 

Velvet-and-satin  ribbons  are  sometimes  made  with 
contrasting  colors  on  the  opposite  sides ;  for  example, 
black  or  navy  blue  ribbons  may  have  scarlet  or  yellow 
backs. 

Finishing,  Dyeing,  and  Printing 

Ribbons  are  sometimes  piece-dyed,  but  more  gen- 
erally yarn-dyed.  Changeable  silk  ribbons  are  made 
with  warp  and  weft  of  different  colors.  Sometimes 
there  are  two  colors  in  the  warp  and  one  in  the  weft. 


152 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Each  weft  or  filling  thread  is  called  a  pick ;  the  average 
number  of  picks  to  the  inch  range  from  80  to  100. 
Satin  ribbon  has  about  90  picks,  while  taffeta  has 
about  120. 

Ribbons  usually  have  some  weighting  material  in  the 
dye  to  give  them  body,  and  some  receive  a  large  amount 
of  glue  or  other  sizing  in  the  finishing  processes. 
Soft  taffeta  ribbons  require  very  little  finishing. 
Satin  ribbons  are  calendered  to  increase  their  luster. 
Gauze  ribbons  are  made  from  "  schappe  "  silk  or  silk 
in  the  gum. 

The  less  expensive  fancy  ribbons  are  surface-printed, 
but  finer  varieties  are  either  warp-printed  or  woven  on 
the  Jacquard  machine. 

For  warp-printed  ribbons  the  warp  is  first  beamed 
and  then  printed  on  rotary  presses.  They  were  for- 
merly block-printed,  when  the  warp  was  caught  to- 
gether by  an  occasional  weft  thread,  then  spread  out  on 
a  table,  and  the  block  designs  imprinted  on  it.  After 
this  it  was  put  back  in  the  loom  and  woven.  Warp- 
printing  gives  a  soft,  uncertain  outline  to  the  pattern 
because  the  plain  weft  threads  cross  it  at  so  many 
points.  Dresden  or  chine  effects  are  given  in  this 
way. 

Jacquard  designs  in  one  or  two  colors  are  easily 
produced,  the  design  being  simply  reversed  on  the 
wrong  side;  but  if  floral  or  other  designs  in  several 
colors  are  to  be  woven,  there  are  apt  to  be  long,  loose 


THE  RIBBON  DEPARTMENT 


153 


threads  on  the  under  side.     These  may  be  cut  off  after 
the  weaving  is  finished,  but  this  involves  extra  expense. 

Designs 

Designs  in  ribbons  change  with  every  season,  but  the 
tendency  of  fashion  has  turned  from  the  definite  floral 
patterns  to  more  conventionalized  ones,  and  especially 
the  oriental  designs.  Chinese,  Japanese,  Persian,  In- 
dian, and  Russian  motifs  have  been  popular,  especially 
in  sport  ribbons.  In  the  latter  we  have  seen  Egyptian 
and  Hawaiian  patterns.  While  there  will  be  fluctua- 
tions, the  probability  is  that  conventionalized  and 
oriental  patterns  will  continue  in  favor  as  the  East  has 
always  been  the  source  of  the  patterns  which  are  best 
suited  to  textile  manufacture. 

The  fancy  varieties  which  vary  in  popularity  from 
year  to  year  are  the  plaid,  striped,  and  dotted  rib- 
bons. Silver  and  gold  threads  are  woven  or  used  in 
silk  ribbons  in  embroidery  or  stripes. 

Qualities  and  Lines 

Ribbons  are  usually  bought  with  their  ornamental 
value  in  mind  and  therefore  customers  are  not  so 
apt  to  ask  about  quality  if  the  ribbons  are  attractive 
in  design  and  color.  But  a  soft,  unweighted  silk  will 
show  its  beauty  when  gathered  up  or  looped  in  bows, 
and  even  if  intended  for  only  one  season,  the  better 
quality  is  almost  always  a  wiser  choice. 


154 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


It 
w  ■ 


The  diversity  of  staple  lines  which  must  be  carried 
in  a  Ribbon  Department  is  greater  than  in  almost  any 
other.  One  writer  in  the  magazine,  Silk,  has  made 
the  following  estimate  of  the  stock  of  ribbons  which 
is  necessary: 

"  Taking  as  a  basis  six  staple  weaves  which,  to 
meet  consumer  requirements,  must  be  carried  from 
number  two  through  all  the  intermediate  numbers  up 
to  one  hundred  lignes,  in  say  one  hundred  colorings, 
if  one  takes  up  a  pencil  and  pad  and  figures  it  out,  it 
readily  can  be  seen  the  bulk  of  these  staple  stocks  alone 
assumes  formidable  proportions.  Then  if  you  pile  on 
to  this  bulk  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  numbers  of  fan- 
cies, the  various  lines  of  wash  ribbons,  and  a  dozen  or 
so  novelty  effects,  the  demand  for  which  comes  with 
the  season,  some  idea  can  be  obtained  of  what  a  poor 
ribbon  year  means  to  the  house  doing  business  in  that 
end  in  the  matter  of  piled-up  stocks." 
Broken  lines  are  always  hard  to  clear  off. 

Uses 

Ribbon  is  a  material,  however,  which  adapts  itself 
readily  to  a  great  number  of  uses  and  an  ingenious 
saleswoman  can  suggest  new  fancies.  Hairbows  and 
girdles,  camisoles,  boudoir  caps,  bags  and  cases,  collars, 
novelties  for  the  traveler  or  the  home  decorator,  can 
be  made  of  ribbon;  if  these  fancies  are  displayed  on 
the  ribbon  counter,  they  add  much  to  interest. 


THE  RIBBON  DEPARTMENT 


155 


Ribbon  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  trimming,  but  in  mil- 
linery it  is  quite  indispensable.  Ribbon  bands,  scarfs, 
quillings,  bows,  cabochons,  rosettes,  and  sport  caps  are 
some  of  the  many  ways  in  which  ribbon  may  effec- 
tively be  used. 

Avoiding  Remnants 

Customers  like  remnants  in  these  days  of  ribbon 
fancy-work.  Losing  even  half  a  yard  on  a  bolt  of 
ten  yards  makes  a  loss  to  the  department.  Such  losses 
should  be  avoided.  The  usual  way,  when  less  than  a 
yard  is  left,  is  to  offer  that  short  length  to  the  customer 
at  half  price.  Such  a  sale  is  a  loss.  A  yard  or  more 
should  be  put  on  a  fresh  bolt ;  any  amount  under  that 
length  should  be  put  in  the  remnant  box,  and  at  least 
once  a  month  the  remnants  put  on  a  table.  Customers 
will  buy  them  eagerly.  One  large  retail  house  in  New 
York  keeps  two  remnant  boxes  on  the  counter  the  year 
round ;  one  contains  plain,  the  other  fancy  ribbon  rem- 
nants, each  with  a  ticket  giving  the  price  and  quantity. 
People  are  attracted,  and  usually  either  buy  remnants 
or  take  the  regular  goods. 

Importance  of  Color 

The  decorative  character  of  ribbons  makes  color  and 
color  combinations  of  the  first  importance.  The  proper 
grouping  of  ribbons  on  the  shelves  of  a  department 
will  make  a  truly  artistic  effect,  while  the  wrong  group- 


156 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


i 

I- 


ing  will  confuse  and  offend  the  eye,  making  a  good 
selection  difficult  for  the  purchaser. 

A  fine  color  sense  is  equally  important  in  the  use 
of  ribbons.  The  modern  demand  for  vivid  contrasts 
is  often  expressed  by  means  of  ribbons  of  very  bril- 
liant hues.  If  the  color  combinations  are  correct  they 
may  be  the  perfect  finishing  touch  to  a  costume,  if  they 
are  not  the  effect  is  crude  and  unpleasant.  Narrow 
ribbon  of  the  color  complementary  to  that  of  the  dress 
may  be  used  in  full  intensity  (see  page  lOo)  with 
excellent  effect  when  a  larger  amount  of  the  same 
tone  would  be  bizarre. 

Bright  color  either  in  dress  or  in  household  decora- 
tion must  be  employed  with  a  nice  balance  of  daring 
and  discretion.  Fancy  ribbons  from  good  manufac- 
turers will  help  to  train  the  eye  as  the  combinations 
are  usually  made  by  artists  and  at  the  present  time 
they  seem  to  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  the  color  scales. 
From  the  delicate,  soft  shading  of  the  warp-printed 
chine  patterns  to  the  gay  Batik  effects  they  illustrate 
almost  every  principle  of  color  combination  in  a  charm- 
ing and  convincing  way. 

History 

Ribbons  were  not  used  as  such  in  Europe  until  the 
sixteenth  century.  Before  that  time  they  were  woven 
on  the  bands  or  borders  of  garments  and  were  narrow 
like  a  rib,  hence  the  name  "ribband." 


THE  RIBBON  DEPARTMENT 


157 


When  first  manufactured  they  were  frequently  made 
of  gilt,  interwoven  with  threads  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
were  expensive.  Consequently  the  English  parliament 
passed  an  act  forbidding  their  use  by  tradespeople  and 
reserving  the  right  to  wear  them  to  the  nobility. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  quantities  of  silk  ribbons 
were  worn,  especially  by  the  men.  The  pictures  of 
that  time  show  men  wearing  loops  of  ribbons  in  great 
profusion  all  over  their  costumes. 

Ribbon  was  sometimes  used  on  men's  and  women^s 
costumes  in  strips  from  neck  to  waist  and  also  on  the 
sleeves.  The  material  to  which  it  was  attached  was 
usually  gathered  and  puffed  out.  In  other  cases  the 
strips  were  attached  to  the  garment  only  at  the  ends. 
In  recent  revivals  of  this  classic  fashion  sleeves  and 
the  upper  parts  of  bodices  have  been  made  wholly  of 
strips  of  ribbon. 

The  terms  "  blue  ribbon  "  and  "  red  ribbon,"  which 
are  given  as  marks  of  excellence,  originated  in  Eng- 
land. The  blue  ribbon  designated  the  Order  of  the 
Garter,  which  is  the  oldest  order  in  England,  and  the 
red  ribbon  designated  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  which  is 
the  next  highest  order. 

Ribbons  vary  in  width  from  34  inch  to  12  inches. 
The  custom  of  numbering  ribbons  originated  in  Eng- 
land and  was  governed  by  the  thickness  of  the  English 
penny,  which  was  nearly  the  size  of  our  silver  dollar. 
A  number  one  ribbon  was  the  width  of  one  of  these 


158 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


pennies  set  up  on  edge ;  a  number  two  ribbon  was  the 
width  of  two  of  the  pennies  set  up  edgewise ;  a  number 
seven  ribbon  was  the  width  of  seven  pennies;  and  so 
on. 


V.  i 


w4 


Chapter  XVII 

THE  UMBRELLA  AND  PARASOL 
DEPARTMENT 

Materials  Used  in  Umbrellas  and  Parasols 

Umbrellas  and  parasols  are  reckoned  among  the  silk 
departments,  but  they  are  made  of  many  materials: 
cotton,  wool,  silk,  or  mixtures,  for  the  covers;  and 
wood,  steel,  brass,  and  leather  for  the  frames ;  besides 
the  ornamental  mountings  which  may  be  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  tortoise  shell,  or  celluloid. 

Divisions  of  Stock 
The  department  may  be  divided  into  three  sections : 

Ladies'  umbrellas  and  parasols 

Men's  umbrellas 

Children's  umbrellas  and  parasols 

The  women's  umbrellas  may  be  divided  into  three 
grades :  first,  second,  and  third  quality. 

Frames  of  Women's  Umbrellas 

The  frames  of  the  best  umbrellas  for  women  have 
fluted  or  hollow  steel  ribs  with  ball  tips;  they  are 
japanned  black  and  the  joints  are  covered  with  fine 

159 


;f   '< 


I     I 


i6o 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


leather  or  silk.  The  mountings  are  all  very  fine.  The 
runner  (the  circular  piece  that  slides  on  an  umbrella 
stick  and  carries  the  connections)  is  of  brass,  either 
japanned  or  bronzed  over. 

The  second  quality  is  of  the  same  materials  with 
somewhat  lighter  brass  and  mountings  less  highly 
finished. 

The  third  quality  has  solid  steel  ribs,  small  self -tips, 
the  joints  covered  with  cotton,  an  iron  runner,  and  a 
zinc  notch,  japanned  black. 

Covers 

The  covers  of  the  best  umbrellas  are  of  strong 
twilled  silk ;  in  the  next  quality  they  are  a  mixture  of 
materials:  silk-and-wool,  gloria  finished,  or  silk-and- 
cotton,  or  some  fine  mercerized  or  schreinerized  cotton. 
The  cheapest  are  of  soft-finished  cotton  materials. 

Sticks  and  Handles 

The  sticks  should  be  light  and  strong.  They  are 
made  of  many  kinds  of  wood.  Sometimes  the  handle 
is  a  part  of  the  stick,  as  when  twisted  roots  are  left  or 
the  wood  is  soaked  in  water  and  bent.  When  the 
handle  is  to  be  of  metal  or  some  fancy  moimting,  steel 
tubes  are  often  used.  The  mountings  may  be  of  any 
degree  of  luxury.  Engraved  gold  and  silver,  carved 
ivory,  and  inlaid  mother-of-pearl  are  often  found. 


UMBRELLAS  AND  PARASOLS 


l6l 


Manufacturing 

The  sticks,  now  usually  made  of  steel  tubing,  are 
first  cut  to  the  required  length,  then  the  springs  are 
fastened  in.  The  slots  for  the  springs  are  drilled  by  a 
small  circular  saw  and  the  springs  riveted  in  place. 
The  framework  is  then  adjusted.  The  frame  of  a  silk 
umbrella  consists  usually  of  8  or  lO  ribs  and  the  same 
number  of  stretchers.  Cotton  umbrellas  sometimes 
have  14  or  16  ribs. 

The  runner  and  ferrule  (the  small  metal  cap  at  the 
end  of  the  stick)  are  slipped  on  the  stick  and  the  ribs 
and  stretchers  are  drawn  into  place  by  wires  which 
pass  through  the  eyes  at  the  ends.  The  ferrule  is  then 
riveted  to  the  stick,  small  pieces  of  leather  or  cloth 
are  fastened  over  the  joints,  and  the  frame  is  ready  for 
the  cover.     Some  umbrellas  have  no  ferrule. 

The  silk  for  the  cover  is  first  hemmed,  then  the  pieces 
are  cut  in  batches  and  sent  back  to  the  machine-room 
to  be  stitched  together.  The  completed  cover  is 
slipped  over  the  frame,  sewed  to  the  ribs,  and  the  cap 
or  metal  top-piece  attached. 

The  various  small  umbrella  fittings  are  shown  in 
Figure  12. 

Folding  Umbrellas 

Umbrellas  which  are  designed  to  fold  so  that  they 
may  be  packed  in  a  suitcase,  or  trunk,  have  a  collapsi- 
ble end  which,  when  the  spring  is  pressed,  sinks  down 


162 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


into  the  steel  rod.  The  hinged  handle  then  folds  over, 
making  a  compact  bundle  the  length  of  the  ribs.  An- 
other variety  has  hinged  ribs  also. 

The  mechanism  of  these  folding  umbrellas  is  apt  to 
get  out  of  order,  though  some  people  find  them  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  and  they  are  a  great  convenience  to 
the  traveler. 

Parasols 

Parasols  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  those 
which  can  be  used  for  both  sun  and  rain,  and  those 
which  are  so  small  or  so  fanciful  that  they  can  be  used 
only  for  the  sim. 

The  best  parasols  have  fluted  steel  ribs  which  are 
sometimes  brass-  or  nickel-plated  or  gilded  and  have 
tips  of  the  same  color.  The  runner  is  of  brass.  The 
joints  are  covered  with  silk. 

Those  of  a  medium  grade  have  solid  steel  ribs  which 
may  be  plated  with  brass,  and  the  runner  is  of  light 
iron.  Since  parasols  are  smaller  than  umbrellas  and 
are  not  intended  to  resist  wind,  the  frames  need  not  be 
made  so  strong.  The  more  expensive  ones  differ  from 
those  of  medium  grades  chiefly  in  their  finish  and 
ornamentation. 

The  parasols  intended  for  both  sun  and  rain  may 
have  ribs  21  to  23  inches  long.  The  more  ornamental 
ones  are  20  to  21  inches.  Covers  are  made  of  many 
varieties  of  material.     Plain  silk  in  green,  blue,  brown, 


Figure  12.    Umbrella  Fittings 


! 


I 


11 


J 


' 


i 


[ii 


H\ 


UMBRELLAS  AND  PARASOLS 


l<^3 


ecru,  or  black  and  white  may  be  found  in  the  larger 
ones.  They  are  also  dotted  and  striped,  sometimes 
with  a  satin  stripe  following  the  outer  edge. 

Fancy  parasols  are  made  in  every  hue,  with  large 
and  small  patterns  and  sometimes  trimmed  elaborately 
with  quilled  ribbon,  fringe,  or  lace.  Satin-faced  cov- 
ers are  usually  made  with  a  silk  weft  on  a  cotton  warp. 

Pongee,  linen,  and  cotton  parasols  are  also  much 
used,  especially  at  the  seashore  or  summer  resorts. 
The  pongee  or  linen  is  either  natural  color  or  bleached, 
but  the  cotton  covers  are  of  every  shade  to  imitate  silk. 

Some  parasol  frames  are  made  so  that  different  cov- 
ers can  be  used  to  match  summer  dresses.  Each  cover 
has  little  clips  to  fasten  it  to  the  frame. 

Parasol  sticks  are  more  elaborate  than  umbrella 
sticks  and  are  often  very  fragile.  At  one  time  they 
were  like  shepherdess  crooks  with  bows  of  ribbon;  at 
another  they  represented  golf  sticks.  They  may  be 
very  costly  with  ornamentation  of  gold,  silver,  ivory, 
or  inlaid  jewels. 

Men's  Umbrellas 

Men's  umbrellas  differ  in  quality  rather  than  in 
style.  They  are  built  for  strength  and  service  rather 
than  beauty,  and  are  seldom  much  ornamented. 

Frames  of  Men's  Umbrellas 

As  the  man's  umbrella  is  larger  it  must  have  a 


i64 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


stronger  frame  than  that  for  a  woman.  The  first- 
quaHty  frame  is  similar,  except  that  joints  are  stronger 
and  the  runner  is  of  hardened  brass.  The  joints  are 
covered  with  cotton. 

The  medium-grade  umbrella  is  also  strong  and  flexi- 
ble, but  has  a  steel  runner  and  somewhat  heavier  ribs. 
The  joints  are  covered  with  silk  or  leather. 

Inexpensive  grades  are  made  with  solid  steel  ribs, 
which  are  necessarily  heavy  if  strong  and  have  a 
japanned  iron  runner. 

Covers  of  Men's  Umbrellas 

The  best  silk  covers  for  men's  umbrellas  are  made  in 
England.  If  made  of  pure,  unweighted  silk  the  cover 
is  expensive,  as  it  must  be  heavy  to  be  completely 
water-proof. 

Mixtures  or  union  goods,  consisting  of  wool  and 
silk  or  cotton  and  silk,  are  much  stronger  and  more 
satisfactory  than  the  cheaper  grades  of  silk.  An 
Egyptian  cotton  warp  and  good  silk  weft  makes  a 
handsome  and  strong  cover.  The  yam-dyed  mixtures 
are  imported. 

Mercerized  and  schreinerized  cotton  is  used  for  the 
less  expensive  covers.  A  dull-finish  cotton,  however, 
will  look  better  than  the  schreinerized  material  after 
it  has  been  worn  some  time,  because  the  finish  soon 
wears  off.  ( See  manuals  for  "  Cotton  and  Linen  De- 
partments "  for  cotton  finishes. ) 


UMBRELLAS  AND  PARASOLS 


165 


Sticks  and  Handles  of  Men's  Umbrellas 

So  many  kinds  of  wood  and  cane  are  used  for  sticks 
that  a  list  is  given. 


Name  of  Wood 

Acacia 

Ash 

Bakow 

Bamboo 

Bay  Tree 

Beefwood 

Birch 

Blackthorn 

Black  tork 

Boxwood 

Briar 

Carob 

Carolina  reed 

Cedarwood 

Cherry 

Chestnut,   Spanish 

Coffee 

Cork 

Crab-apple 

Date-palm 

Dogwood 

Ebony 

Elm 

Eucalyptus 

Fullers'  teazle 

Furze 

Gru-gru 

Guelder  rose 

Hazel 

Holly 

Hornbeam 

Lancewood 

Loya  cane 


Where  Grown 

Africa  and  Australia 

British  Isles,  Europe,  and  America 

Singapore 

China  and  Japan 

Algeria 

Cuba 

Great  Britain  and  Northern  Europe 

British  Isles 

West  Indies 

Persia  and  West  Indies 

West  Indies 

Algeria 

China 

North  America 

Austria-Hungary 

France 

West  Indies 

Spain  and  Algeria 

British  Isles 

Algeria 

England 

Ceylon  and  Macassar 

England  and  Central  Europe 

Algeria 

England,  France,  and  Germany 

Scotland 

West  Indies 

Balkan  States 

British  Isles  and  Europe 

England 

England 

South  America 

Australia 


il 


1 66 

Name  of  Wood 

Malacca  cane 

Maple 

Medlar 

Midgen 

Mountain  ash 

Myall-wood 

Myrtle 

Nana  cane 

Oak 

Olive 

Orange 

Palmyra 

Partridge  cane 

Partridge  wood 

Penang   lawyer 

Pimento 

Pomegranate 

Rajah  cane 

Rattan 

Snakewood 

Thistle 

Tonquin  cane 

Whangee 

Whitehorn 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 

Where  Grown 
Siam 

Europe  and  America 
France 
Australia 

England  and  Northern  Europe 
Australia 
Northern  Africa 
Algeria 
England 
Algeria 

Spain  and  Algeria 
India 
China 

West  Indies 
Penang 
West  Indies 
Algeria 
Borneo 

Eastern  Tropics 
Persia  and  Brazil 
British  Isles 
China 
Japan 
British  Isles 


Some  of  these  woods  are  used  in  their  "  natural  '* 
finish,  while  others  are  colored  and  finished  in  many 
different  ways. 

The  simplest  handle  is  bent  or  curved  by  steeping 
the  wood  in  water  until  it  can  be  given  the  desired 
shape.  Metal  tops  with  flat  disks  or  handles  of  horn, 
bone,  or  ivory  are  also  used,  sometimes  with  a  hollow 
steel  tube  instead  of  a  stick  to  connect  the  handle  with 
the  runner. 


UMBRELLAS  AND  PARASOLS 


167 


The  handles  of  both  men's  and  women's  umbrellas 
are  sometimes  made  of  carved  ivory,  gold,  and  other 
costly  materials,  even  set  with  the  semiprecious  stones. 
Such  umbrellas  or  the  handles  alone  may  be  found  at 
jewelers'  shops  and  in  the  jewelry  department.  The 
most  expensive  ones  are  made  so  that  they  may  be 
unscrewed  from  the  stick  and  removed  for  safe-keep- 
ing when  the  umbrella  is  not  in  use. 

Umbrellas  for  men  range  from  26  to  30  inches. 

Children's  Umbrellas 

Children's  umbrellas  and  parasols  are  made  in  a 
number  of  grades.  The  best  ones  are  similar  to  those 
made  for  women,  but  are  smaller.  The  cheaper  ones 
are  often  very  fragile  and,  though  bright  and  pretty 
when  bought,  soon  lose  their  freshness. 

Suggestions  as  to  Care  of  Umbrellas 

Umbrellas  and  parasols  should  never  be  left  tightly 
rolled  as  the  silk  will  cut  on  the  edge  of  the  folds. 
A  wet  umbrella  should  be  spread  out,  so  that  it  will 
dry  evenly  and  quickly,  as  dampness  rots  the  silk. 

A  good  umbrella  frame  will  outwear  several  covers 
and  will  often  justify  a  new  cover.  Parasols  can  be 
made  with  adjustable  covers  to  match  different  cos- 
tumes. 

History 

Umbrellas  are  now  regarded  as  a  protection  from  the 


i 


i68 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


rain,  but  that  is  a  comparatively  recent  use.  Umbrel- 
las were  first  designed  as  a  protection  from  the  sun 
and  the  word  umbrella  comes  from  the  Italian  om- 
hrella,  meaning  "  a  little  shade.*' 

In  Asiatic  countries  the  umbrella  has  been  for  many 
centuries  an  emblem  of  royalty;  kings  and  princes 
have  walked  or  ridden  under  its  protection  from  pre- 
historic times. 

The  time  assigned  by  the  Chinese  to  the  advent  of 
the  first  umbrella  antedates  by  5,000  years  the  Mosaic 
date  of  the  creation  of  the  world. 

In  India  there  is  a  legend  that  Vishnu  was  shaded 
by  an  umbrella  when  he  visited  the  inferno. 

The  Greeks  introduced  umbrellas  into  Europe  and 
the  Romans  carried  very  elaborate  ones  made  of  skin 
or  leather.  They  were  introduced  in  England  about 
the  seventeenth  century,  but  they  had  been  fashionable 
in  Venice  and  Florence  and  in  France  before  that 

Jonas  Hanway  in  1780  was  the  first  man  in  England 
to  use  an  umbrella  as  a  protection  from  the  rain. 
Hanway  had  traveled  in  the  far  east  and  brought  his 
umbrella  from  Persia.  For  a  long  time  it  was  consid- 
ered effeminate  for  a  man  to  carry  an  umbrella,  though 
women  had  been  using  them  for  sunshades. 

At  one  time  huge  umbrellas  were  kept  in  the  halls 
of  country  houses  and  were  carried  over  the  heads  of 
the  ladies  as  they  went  from  the  house  to  the  sedan 
chair  or  carriage.     These  umbrellas  had   frames  of 


UMBRELLAS  AND  PARASOLS 


169 


whalebone  and  were  covered  with  thick  cloth.  Para- 
sols jvere  often  very  elaborate  and  costly  with  fine 
whalebone  frames,  silk  tassels,  and  fringes.  They 
were  often  jointed  so  that  the  top  could  be  turned  to 
a  vertical  position  and  used  as  a  fan  or  to  shade  the 
eyes.  The  handles  were  sometimes  made  of  carved 
coral  or  ivory  and  were  jointed  with  a  metal  slide  cov- 
ering the  hinge.  When  not  in  use  the  handle  could  be 
folded  over  and  the  parasol  carried  under  the  arm. 


I 


Chapter  XVIII 

THE  HISTORY  OF  SILK 

Discovery  in  China 

The  most  beautiful  textile  fiber,  silk,  was  first  dis- 
covered by  the  Chinese.  The  silkworms  were  a  nat- 
ural product  of  China  and  the  cocoons  were  plentiful. 

According  to  Chinese  records,  the  silkworms  ap- 
peared in  the  garden  of  Hoang-Ti,  who  was  the  Em- 
peror of  China,  2700  B.C.,  and  the  emperor's  wife,  Si- 
Ling-Chi,  who  became  interested  in  the  cocoons,  her- 
self discovered  a  way  of  reeling  the  silk  from  the  co- 
coons and  of  weaving  the  fine  thread  into  cloth.  She 
is  even  now  worshipped  throughout  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire as  the  **  Goddess  of  Silkworms." 

The  secret  source  of  the  silk  fiber  was  guarded  for 
many  years,  and  although  the  silk  was  imported  from 
China,  no  one,  under  penalty  of  death,  was  allowed  to 
carry  eggs  of  the  silkworm  to  another  country. 

Silk  Culture  in  Japan 

Silk-weaving  was  known  in  Japan  long  before  the 

Christian  era.     About  the  third  century  a.d.  a  large 

number  of  Chinese  emigrated  to  Japan  where  they 

170 


1 


THE  HISTORY  OF  SILK 


171 


were  given  a  section  of  the  country  in  which  they 
might  practice  the  Chinese  method  of  silk-weaving. 
Later  they  were  ordered  to  settle  in  different  parts  of 
the  empire  and  to  rear  silkworms,  as  well  as  to  weave 
the  raw  product  into  cloth. 

For  centuries  the  Chinese  weavers  led  in  silk  culture 
and  promoted  the  industry  in  Japan.  The  silk-produc- 
ing sections  of  the  empire  were  required  to  pay  annual 
tribute  of  silk  fabrics  to  the  Emperor. 

Japan  and  China  have  shared  the  honor  of  being  the 
greatest  silk-producing  countries  in  the  world. 

In  1874  the  Japanese  Empress  Shoken  established 
sericulture  (silkworm  culture)  in  the  imperial  palace 
and  ever  since  that  time  it  has  received  the  fostering 
care  of  the  royal  family.  A  rearing  house  has  been 
constructed,  mulberry  trees  planted,  and  one  chief  ex- 
pert and  ten  assistants  are  employed.  Great  care  is 
used  in  the  selection  of  these  experts,  most  of  whom 
are  graduates  of  local  agricultural  or  sericultural 
schools. 

Chinese  Silks 

Not  only  were  the  Chinese  the  first  to  domesticate 
the  silkworm,  but  they  invented  looms  and  appliances 
by  means  of  which  they  carried  the  art  of  weaving  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  They  planned  twills  and 
satin  weaves,  whereby  the  lustrous  quality  of  the  silk 
was  particularly  displayed,  and  their  arrangements  for 


172 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


ornamental  pattern-weaving  have  never  been  sur- 
passed. The  most  approved  modem  looms  are  in  all 
essential  points  exactly  the  same  as  the  compound 
draw-loom  for  pattern- weaving  which  is  shown  in  an- 
cient Chinese  pictures. 

China  has  always  continued  to  be  the  greatest  pro- 
ducer and  consumer  of  silk  fabrics. 

Japanese  Silk 

The  Japanese,  who  were  apt  pupils  of  the  Chinese, 
are  the  only  ones  who  have  ever  approached  them  in 
excellence.  The  Chinese  do  not  make  any  great  point 
of  exporting  woven  silk,  but  the  Japanese  have  for 
years  contributed  largely  to  the  world's  markets. 
Japan's  export  of  manufactured  silk  recently  amoimted 
to  $7,500,000  in  one  year.  Great  improvements  have 
been  made  in  machinery  and  weaves.  Japanese  crepe 
de  chine  and  georgette  are  made  for  the  American, 
European,  and  Australian  markets,  and  in  the  first 
three  years  of  the  war  seven  thousand  pieces  of  silk 
were  sent  to  the  Allies  for  air-ships  which  require  a 
well-woven  fabric  of  unusual  strength. 

Strict  responsibility  about  filling  orders  has  not  al- 
ways been  shown,  however,  and  the  great  demand  and 
high  prices  have  caused  an  inferior  raw  silk  to  be  sent 
abroad. 

A  Chinese  organization  called  the  General  Guild  of 
the  Silk  Trade  of  Shanghai  has  taken  up  the  question 


THE  HISTORY  OF  SILK 


^73 


44 


I 


of  improvements  in  the  methods  of  silk  production. 
For  ceremonial  garments  the  Chinese  and  the  Japa- 
nese have  always  used  heavy  silk  inwrought  with  gold 
and  silver  as  rich  and  costly  as  could  be  furnished. 
Recently  the  Japanese  have  used  for  their  brocade  a 
gold  paper  cut  into  narrow  strips  and  spun  around  a 
silk  thread,  twisted  into  a  thread  of  itself  and  woven 
with  the  fabric.  The  fabric  made  in  this  way  looks  as 
if  it  were  inwrought  with  genuine  gold,  but  it  is  much 
cheaper  and  more  flexible  than  gold. 

Silk  in  India 

Silk  has  been  manufactured  in  India  in  very  large 
quantities  and  has  been  excellent  in  technique  and  de- 
sign. Silk  was  carried  to  India  from  China  about  the 
third  century  and  manufactured  there. 

Silk  Production  in  Europe 

Aristotle,  the  first  ancient  writer  to  mention  silk, 
writes  of  Pamphilia,  a  lady  of  Cos,  as  wearing  a  trans- 
parent silk  gauze,  so  fine  that  it  was  called  "  woven 
wind."  It  is  evident  that  this  tissue  was  fashionable 
at  that  early  period.  The  cloth  was  probably  woven 
of  thread  unraveled  from  a  Chinese  fabric. 

In  ancient  times  Chinese  silks  and  embroideries  were 
exported,  but  not  the  silk  thread.  Plain  woven  fabrics 
were  bought  and  unwoven  in  other  countries,  to  obtain 
the  thread  which  the  Chinese  made  very  strong  and 


ll:l 


174 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


dyed  in  beautiful  colors.  It  is  said  that  the  Saracenic 
and  Spanish  weavers,  whose  beautiful  work  may  still 
be  found  in  the  museums,  obtained  their  silk  thread  in 
this  way.  Raw  silk  was  not  exported  from  China 
until  centuries  later. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  raw  silk  was 
one  of  the  most  valuable  imports  into  the  Roman 
Empire.  Although  it  had  been  used  for  centuries  the 
people  had  no  idea  of  its  source.  They  imagined  that, 
like  flax  and  cotton,  it  might  come  from  the  trees  or 
flowers. 

The  silk  which  the  Romans  used  was  sent  from 
China  overland  through  Persia.  The  long  journeys 
were  made  by  caravans  and  many  months  were  con- 
sumed in  the  transportation,  but  the  price  obtained 
more  than  covered  the  expense  of  the  journey,  and 
brought  a  good  profit  to  the  merchants  dealing  in  the 
silk. 

In  the  sixth  century  a.d.,  when  the  Roman  Emperor 
Justinian  engaged  in  war  with  Persia,  the  entire  sup- 
ply of  raw  silk  was  cut  off,  so  Justinian  determined  to 
find  the  source  of  the  raw  material.  By  paying  a  large 
sum  of  money,  he  induced  two  Nestorian  monks  to  go 
to  China  and  to  learn  the  mystery  of  the  whole  silk 
process. 

These  monks  traveled  on  foot  through  Persia  and 
India  to  China,  where  they  succeeded  in  learning  the 
secret.     Although  anyone  who  carried  silkworms*  eggs 


THE  HISTORY  OF  SILK 


175 


out  of  China  could  be  punished  by  death,  the  monks 
hid  several  thousand  eggs  in  their  hollow  bamboo  staffs 
and  escaped  with  their  booty. 

In  555  A.D.  they  returned  to  Constantinople,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Eastern  Empire.  They  presented  the  eggs 
to  Justinian  and  he  afterward  placed  the  monks  in 
charge  of  an  industry  which  he  established.  By  rais- 
ing the  price  of  silk  he  added  much  to  his  imperial 
treasury.  After  his  death  the  monopoly  ceased  and 
the  industry  spread  to  other  countries. 

In  the  tendi  century  the  Moors  started  silkworm 
culture  in  Spain,  where  it  later  developed  into  a  most 
important  industry. 

By  the  twelfth  century  it  had  spread  to  Greece  and 
Italy,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  France  was  raising 
silkworms  and  manufacturing  silk. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  Flemish  weavers  went  to 
England  and  started  the  industry,  but  the  climate  did 
not  seem  suited  to  the  raising  of  the  worms.  From 
time  to  time  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  seri- 
culture in  England,  but  they  have  always  failed. 

Cloth  of  gold  was  used  in  England  from  the  reign 
of  Edward  I  to  the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  that  is,  from 
the  thirteenth  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  wearing 
of  this  cloth  was  prohibited  except  to  people  of  the 
nobility. 

Silk  was  first  introduced  on  this  continent  through 
the  Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 


176 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


1;      !     '•     ' 


tury,  and  plans  were  made  to  establish  sericulture  in 
Mexico.  Although  silk  was  exported  to  some  extent, 
the  industry  did  not  last  long. 

Early  Attempts  in  the  United  States 

A  few  years  after  the  settlement  of  the  Virginia 
colony  in  1620  skilled  men  were  sent  for  by  the  Eng- 
lish to  start  the  raising  of  silkworms,  but  with  little 
result. 

The  most  successful  attempt  at  silk  culture  in  the 
American  colonies  was  in  Georgia,  but  even  there  the 
industry  was  never  a  commercial  success.  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Connecticut  each  tried  silk-raising  until,  with 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  the  silk  industry  was 
suspended.  After  the  war  it  was  revived  principally 
as  a  household  industry. 

Silk  culture  has  been  tried  in  this  country  from 
Maine  to  Florida  and  to  California,  but  for  various 
reasons  all  efforts  have  failed.  The  principal  obstacle 
has  been  the  cost  of  labor  which  is  so  much  higher  here 
than  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

Between  1837  and  1840  there  was  a  speculation  in 
mulberry  trees  throughout  the  country.  So  great  was 
the  excitement  that  fruit  trees  were  cut  down  to  make 
room  for  the  mulberries  and  enormous  prices  were 
paid  for  the  trees,  but  a  severe  winter  set  in  and  killed 
most  of  them  and  put  an  end  to  the  short-lived  specu- 
lation. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  SILK 


^77 


Centers  of  Raw  Silk  Production 

It  has  been  proved  that  raw  silk  can  be  produced 
commercially  only  in  those  countries  where  lajx)r  is 
cheap  and  abundant.  China,  Japan,  and  Italy  furnish 
four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply.  China  is  first  in  the 
amount  produced,  but  in  quality  it  ranks  third.  There 
are  two  ports  in  China  from  which  the  raw  silk  is 
shipped:  Shanghai  and  Canton.  The  best  Chinese 
silks  come  from  Shanghai  and  are  known  as  "  steam 
filatures."  The  wild  silk  comes  from  the  northern 
part  of  China. 

Japan  is  second  in  the  amount  of  raw  silk  produced, 
and  second  also  in  quality.  The  greatest  market  in 
Japan  is  Yokohama.  The  color  of  the  silk  from 
Japan  is  pure  white. 

Italy  is  third  in  the  amount  of  raw  silks  produced, 
but  the  quality  is  the  best.  The  color  of  the  Italian 
raw  silk  is  bright  yellow. 

Figure  13  shows  raw  silk  bundled  and  baled  for 
shipment  to  this  country. 

European  Centers  of  Silk  Manufacture 

France  produces  the  largest  number  of  manufac- 
tured silks  and  also  the  highest  grade  of  materials. 
Lyons  is  the  center  of  the  trade  and  is  noted  for  the 
many  beautiful  Jacquard  weaves  —  velvets,  embroi- 
dered tulles,  gauzes,  mousselines  de  soie,  and  chiffons 
woven  in  the   factories.     Other  cities  renowned   for 


178 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


]  w 


,J 


silk-weaving  are  Calais,  Paris,  Tours,  and  Avignon. 
Most  of  the  beautiful  French  ribbons  are  made  at  St. 
Chamond  and  St.  Etienne. 

Italian  silk  is  the  finest  next  to  that  woven  in  France. 
The  city  of  Milan  ranks  after  Lyons  in  silk  manufac- 
ture, while  Naples  and  Como  are  also  thriving  centers 
of  the  industry. 

Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  and  Switzerland  also  engage 
in  the  manufacture  of  silk.  Switzerland  is  chiefly 
famous  for  the  fine  ribbons  and  knitted  goods  pro- 
duced at  Basle  and  Berne. 

Manufacture  of  Silk  in  Great  Britain 

It  is  probable  that  the  early  silk  fabrics  in  England 
were  made  and  used  as  the  background  for  the  em- 
broidery for  which  England  had  been  famous  since  the 
middle  ages.  In  the  middle  ages  the  raw  silk  was  no 
doubt  obtained  at  great  cost  from  the  East  and  made 
into  silk  threads  for  the  embroidery. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  a  large  number  of  Prot- 
estant refugees  from  France  —  many  of  whom  were 
skilled  weavers  —  went  to  England  and  founded  an 
industry,  the  center  of  which  was  at  London.  Since 
that  time  silk-weaving  has  continued  to  be  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  the  textile  industry  in  Great  Britain 
and  of  late  years  some  of  the  most  artistic  decorative 
furniture  silks  have  been  produced  there. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  Kingdom  manufac- 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


178 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


silk-weaving  are  Calais,  Paris,  Tours,  and  Avignon. 
Most  of  the  beautiful  French  ribbons  are  made  at  St. 
Chamond  and  St.  Etienne. 

Italian  silk  is  the  finest  next  to  that  woven  in  France. 
The  city  of  Milan  ranks  after  Lyons  in  silk  manufac- 
ture, while  Naples  and  Como  are  also  thriving  centers 
of  the  industry. 

Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  and  Switzerland  also  engage 
in  the  manufacture  of  silk.  Switzerland  is  chiefly 
famous  for  the  fine  ribbons  and  knitted  goods  pro- 
duced at  Basle  and  Berne. 

Manufacture  of  Silk  in  Great  Britain 

It  is  probable  that  the  early  silk  fabrics  in  England 
were  made  and  used  as  the  background  for  the  em- 
broidery for  which  England  had  been  famous  since  the 
middle  ages.  In  the  middle  ages  the  raw  silk  was  no 
doubt  obtained  at  great  cost  from  the  East  and  made 
into  silk  threads  for  the  embroidery. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  a  large  number  of  Prot- 
estant refugees  from  France  —  many  of  whom  were 
skilled  weavers  —  went  to  England  and  founded  an 
industry,  the  center  of  which  was  at  London.  Since 
that  time  silk-weaving  has  continued  to  be  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  the  textile  industry  in  Great  Britain 
and  of  late  years  some  of  the  most  artistic  decorative 
furniture  silks  have  been  produced  there. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  Kingdom  manufac- 


PQ 

c 
(t 

-o 

c 
OQ 

Pi 


be 


THE  HISTORY  OF  SILK 


179 


tures  dress  goods,  ribbons,  laces,  and  embroideries. 
Leeds  is  noted  for  the  production  of  fine  sewing- 
silks,  and  Coventry  is  famous  for  the  ribbons  woven 
there. 

Liberty  Silks 

A  very  specialized  silk  industry  grew  up  at  London 
during  the  last  century.  The  house  of  Liberty,  from 
which  are  obtained  the  Liberty  silks  famous  for  their 
quality  and  delicate  artistic  coloring,  was  founded  in 
1875  in  a  little  shop  on  Regent  Street,  London,  by 
Arthur  Lasenby  Liberty.  Arthur  Liberty  (who  is 
now  Sir  Arthur)  began  almost  at  once  to  imitate  the 
weaves  of  the  Orient ;  the  silks  and  brocades  of  China 
and  Japan,  the  soft  woolen  fabrics  of  Cashmere,  the 
filmy  gauzes  of  India,  and  many  other  exotic  materials 
were  one  by  one  paralleled  and  in  many  instances  sur- 
passed. The  Liberty  silks  have  always  been  very  soft 
and  beautiful  for  draperies.  Liberty  colors  are  known 
all  over  the  world  for  their  delicacy  and  permanence. 
They  are  dyed  only  with  vegetable  dyes. 

The  Manufacture  of  Silk  in  the  United  States 

The  raw  silk  used  in  the  United  States  is  imported 
from  foreign  countries  where  labor  is  cheap.  The 
work  of  raising  the  worms  and  reeling  the  ^ilk  from 
cocoons  must  be  done  almost  entirely  by  hand.  Since 
silkworms  may  be  raised  in  the  United  States  only 


i8o 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


with  the  greatest  care  and  cost,  the  industry  is  not  a 
profitable  one  and  has  practically  died  out. 

The  raw  silk  exported  from  China  and  Japan  comes 
to  New  York,  the  distributing  point  for  the  country, 
by  way  of  San  Francisco  and  Seattle.  The  raw  silk 
from  Italy  and  France  comes  direct  to  New  York. 

Before  1880  silk  manufacturing  in  the  United  States 
was  a  small  industry.  Since  that  time  it  has  grown 
and  developed  rapidly.  At  present  the  United  States 
leads  all  other  countries  in  the  volume  of  silk  manu- 
facturing. 

Silk  manufacture  is  carried  on  in  many  states,  but 
most  extensively  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  and  Connecticut.  The  center  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  goods  from  raw  silk  is  Paterson,  N.  J.  The 
largest  amount  of  waste  silk  is  sent  to  Hartford, 
Conn.,  and  Boston,  Mass.,  whence  it  is  shipped  to  the 
New  England  mills,  which  lead  in  the  manufacture  of 
sewing-silks. 

A  list  of  the  leading  silk  manufacturers  of  the 
United  States  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 


Chapter  XIX 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALESPEOPLE 
AND  PURCHASERS 

Arrangement  and  Display 

An  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  the  Silk  Depart- 
ment not  only  makes  the  sales  force  enjoy  their  work, 
but  also  makes  them  more  effective  with  customers ;  the 
bright,  interested  person  will  sell  twice  as  much  silk 
and  be  twice  as  valuable  to  the  store. 

Much  can  be  done  in  the  arrangement  of  the  Silk 
Department  to  make  it  attractive. 

Color  and  color  combinations  should  form  an  inter- 
esting study  for  the  salesperson  in  this  department. 
Many  striking  and  pleasing  effects  may  be  obtained  by 
a  careful  student  of  the  laws  of  color  harmony. 

The  lustrous  quality  of  silk  aids  immeasurably  in 
the  arrangement.  When  silks  or  velvets  are  displayed 
over  fixtures  on  or  above  the  counter,  their  beauty  is 
much  affected  by  the  way  in  which  the  light  strikes  the 
glossy  surface  of  the  silk  or  the  rich  pile  of  the  velvet. 

The  colors  of  silks  are  also  very  much  changed  in 
their  appearance  by  the  proximity  of  other  silks. 
Salespeople  should  understand  the  laws  of  color  har- 
monies, and  return  to  the  shelves,  or  fold  up,  silks,  the 
colors  of  which  detract  from  those  tmder  considera- 
tion. 

x8i 


1 82 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Backgrounds 

The  background  against  which  the  silks  are  dis- 
played is  another  most  important  factor  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Silk  Department.  A  list  of  colors  suit- 
able for  backgrounds  is  given  herewith.  It  was  com- 
piled recently  for  the  use  of  window -dressers,  but  it  is 
equally  valuable  for  the  department  display.  Caution 
must  be  observed,  however,  if  the  department  is 
lighted  by  artificial  light  instead  of  daylight,  because 
some  colors  are  brightened,  some  dulled,  and  some 
changed  in  hue. 


Other  Suitable 

Background 

Colors 

Purple,  red,  blue,  green,  brown, 

gray 
Brown,  blue,  purple,  orange,  red 
Yellow,     buff,     cream,     orange, 

light  gray 
Olive,    blue,    white,    light    pink, 

yellow 
Black,  blue,  white,  dark  brown, 

rich  green 
Yellow,  white,  pale  blue,  red 
Purple,  olive  green,  black,  white 
White,    yellow,    orange,    brown, 

pink 
Lavender,  orange,  cream,  pink 
Green,     yellow,     cream,     white, 

gray 
Red,  brown,  cream,  white 
Brown,  purple,  dark  blue,  dark 

gray 
Yellow,  green,  blue,  maroon 
Maroon,     orange,     red,     purple, 

white 


Color  of  Goods 

to  be 

Displayed 

Comple- 
mentary 
Color 

White 

Black 

Gray 
Black 

Black 
White 

Red 

Green 

Yellow 

Purple 

Blue 

Orange 

Green 

Orange 

Blue 

Red 

Purple 
Brown 

Yellow 
Sage 

Olive 
Lavender 

Maroon 
Cream 

Pink 
Sage 

Straw 
Brown 

TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  PURCHASERS       1 83 

Variety  in  Arrangement 

Variety  and  new  ideas  of  arrangement  attract  cus- 
tomers in  any  department,  but  they  are  especially  de- 
sirable in  selling  silks  and  velvets,  and  it  is  easy  to 
obtain  new  effects  because  of  the  beauty  and  richness 
of  color  which  suggest  almost  endless  combinations. 
The  arrangement  of  the  department  should  be  changed 
frequently  and  practical  suggestions  from  salespeople 
should  be  encouraged. 

The  Information  Needed  by  the  Salesperson 

Salespeople  should  know  the  names  of  the  different 
silk  materials  which  they  are  selling,  and  the  names  of 
the  colors,  especially  the  most  fashionable  or  new 
colors.  Lists  of  terms  commonly  used  in  the  silk  in- 
dustry are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

Knowledge  of  the  prevailing  styles  and  the  uses  for 
silks  will  help  the  customer,  provided  the  salesperson 
knows  what  he  is  talking  about.  One  young  sales- 
man was  heard  to  tell  a  young  woman  that  all  gathered 
skirts  were  made  from  "  silk  cut  on  the  bias ! "  She 
expressed  her  astonishment,  but  he  insisted  that  it  was 
so. 

The  salesperson  should  know  the  difference  between 
domestic  and  imported  silks.  Knowing  the  names  of 
the  best  manufacturers  is  often  an  aid  in  selling. 

The  difference  between  pure  silks  and  artificial  silks 
should  be  easily  detected,  because  of  the  high  luster  of 


1 84 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


the  artificial  silk,  and  also  because  close-weave  fabrics 
of  artificial  silk  contain  another  fiber,  usually  cotton. 

How  Much  Material  to  Sell  to  a  Customer 

The  salesperson  should  also  know  approximately 
how  much  material  is  needed  for  a  dress,  suit,  coat, 
waist,  sleeves,  or  vest.  Often  the  fact  that  silks  are 
2^  inches  or  40  inches  wide  means  little  to  a  customer, 
and  she  is  apt  to  purchase  too  little  or  too  much  and 
be  greatly  inconvenienced. 

Since  the  styles  of  costumes  and  the  patterns  of  silks 
change  every  season,  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  per- 
manent and  definite  rules  for  the  amount  of  material 
that  should  be  sold.  The  experienced  salesperson  can 
often  judge  from  the  way  the  pattern  runs  on  the  silk 
whether  more  or  less  material  will  be  needed.  The 
size  of  the  customer  is  another  factor  which  must  be 
considered.  The  ability  to  judge  the  amount  needed 
is  a  sure  test  of  knowledge  of  style  and  design  and 
also  of  the  salesperson's  power  of  observation. 

Quality  and  Values 

In  buying  and  selling  silk  its  use  and  the  service 
which  will  be  demanded  of  it  must  be  considered,  be- 
cause the  value  of  a  textile  lies  in  the  service  it  will 
give,  whether  for  appearance,  wear,  or  style. 

If  the  silk  is  needed  to  serve  only  a  short  time,  a 
cheap  quality  will  answer.     If,  however,  long,  hard 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  PURCHASERS        1 85 

wear  is  required  a  good  quality  must  be  purchased  for 
a  fair  price. 

On  the  silk  counter  are  fabrics  varying  in  price 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  silk.  If  the  customer 
asks  why  one  piece  of  silk  is  better  than  another,  the 
unsatisfactory  answer  in  many  cases  is,  "  Because  it 
costs  more,"  instead  of  the  answer  that  "  The  quality 
is  better  because  of  —''  followed  by  an  adequate  ex- 
planation of  the  reasons. 

It  is  well  for  the  salesperson  to  know  the  true  rea- 
sons for  the  high  price  of  some  silks,  because  such 
reasons  are  all  clear  and  convincing  and  really  answer 
the  inquiries  of  the  customer. 

Reasons  Why  Silk  Is  More  Expensive  Than  Other 
Textile  Materials 

The  cost  of  silk,  as  compared  with  other  textiles, 
depends  upon: 

I.  The  cost  of  raw  material.  This  includes  the 
care  and  feeding  of  the  worms,  gathering  the  cocoons, 
and  reeling  the  silk  from  the  cocoons.  The  quality  of 
the  silk  depends  largely  upon  the  care  taken  in  these 
processes. 

2.  Cost  of  transportation.     There  is  practically  no 
raw  silk  in  this  country. 

3.  Cost  of  dyeing.     The  cost  varies  according  to 
the  dye  used  and  the  treatment  of  the  silk. 

4.  Cost  of   manufacture.     The   differences   in   the 


i86 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


("^jip 


price  of  silks  produced  in  this  country  depend  largely 
upon  the  nature  of  the  twist;  a  heavy  quality  of  silk 
requires  more  threads  twisted  together  and  more  proc- 
esses in  twisting.  The  wearing  qualities  of  silk  de- 
pend not  only  on  a  good  fiber,  but  on  the  equal  weight 
of  warp  and  filling.  A  silk  in  which  the  threads  are 
well-twisted  wears  better  than  one  with  little  or  no 
twist. 

Knowledge  of  Manufacture 

It  is  important  for  the  salesperson  to  know  all  the 
characteristics  of  the  silk  fiber  —  its  difference  in  feel, 
appearance,  strength,  luster,  etc.,  before  manufacture 
and  after. 

The  general  processes  of  manufacture  for  standard 
fabrics  should  also  be  known. 

If  the  salesperson  also  understands  substitutes  and 
adulterations  used,  it  will  be  an  aid  in  detecting 
them. 

The  following  brief  outline  gives  the  essential  points 
upon  which  the  information  should  be  founded. 

Values  of  Different  Kinds  of  Silk 

I.  Quality  and  value  depend  upon: 

(a)  A  suitable  proportion  of  warp  and  weft. 

(b)  The  care  taken  in  the  various  processes 

of  preparation  for  weaving. 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  PURCHASERS        1 87 

(c)  The  excellence  of  the  weaving  itself. 

2.  If  ornamental,  the  value  depends  upon: 

(a)  The  beauty  of  the  design. 

(b)  Its  suitability  to  the  material. 

(c)  The  color  scheme. 

(d)  The    adaptation    for    the    purpose    for 

which  it  is  used. 

3.  The  quality  of  silk  thread  depends  on : 

(a)  The  evenness  with  which  the  several  fila- 

ments are  reeled  from  the  cocoon. 

(b)  The  care  taken  in  all  the  various  proc- 

esses in  the  throwing  mill. 

(c)  Careful  boiling-off  and  skilful  dyeing. 

(d)  The   presence  or   absence   of   artificial 

weighting. 

Matching  Samples 

In  selling  silk  to  harmonize  with  or  match  woolen, 
velvet,  cotton,  or  other  silk  materials,  the  salesperson 
should  realize  that  color  is  greatly  affected  by  several 
conditions. 

The  most  important  ways  in  which  it  may  be 
changed  or  influenced  are  by: 

Light 

Surface  of  fabric 
Adjacent  colors 
Tone  of  color 


i88 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Effect  of  Natural  and  Artificial  Light  on  Matching 
Colors 

Daylight  is  usually  accepted  as  the  standard  light 
under  which  to  match  colors.  There  is  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  in  regard  to  this  standard,  however, 
since  daylight  is  subject  to  many  outside  influences. 
The  morning  light  often  casts  a  pinkish  tinge,  while 
afternoon  light  is  purplish;  smoke  and  dust  in  the  air 
give  a  reddish  cast  to  the  light;  and  it  is  somewhat 
altered  by  the  shadows  of  clouds,  buildings,  and  foli- 
age. Under  clear,  noon  sunlight  colors  appear 
warmer;  under  a  north  skylight  they  are  colder.  Be- 
cause of  these  conditions  mafiy  tones  of  color  are  more 
satisfactory  vmder  artificial  light,  because  the  proper- 
ties of  gas  and  electricity  may  be  chemically  analyzed 
and  depended  upon. 

In  general,  it  is  easier  to  match  somber  colors  — 
blue,  violet,  dark  green,  and  all  shades  of  brown  and 
gray  —  in  the  daytime.  The  pale  tints  and  luminous 
colors  —  red,  yellow,  orange,  and  light  green  —  usu- 
ally appear  to  better  advantage  by  artificial  light.  A 
great  deal  depends,  of  course,  on  whether  the  gown  in 
question  is  for  morning  or  evening  wear.  Many  grays 
which  look  normal  at  night  have  a  brown  or  green  tinge 
in  the  daytime.  A  violet-blue,  which  is  bright  in  the 
da)^ime,  looks  very  somber  and  dull  under  artificial 
light.     It  is  hard  to  distinguish  some  of  the  tints  of 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  PURCHASERS        1 89 

blue  and  green  at  night,  because  of  the  yellow  tinge 
given  by  the  artificial  light. 

Effect  of  Surface  of  Fabric  on  Matching  Colors 

If  the  surface  is  porous  the  light  penetrates  more 
deeply,  suffers  more  internal  reflections,  and  reaches 
the  eye  quite  pure  in  color.  Wool  and  silk  fibers  which 
are  animal  fibers,  are  translucent ;  therefore,  the  colors 
seem  more  brilliant  than  in  linen  and  cotton,  which  are 
relatively  impervious  to  light. 

The  nap  of  some  fabrics  causes  them  to  show 
changeable  colors.  If  it  ends  toward  the  light,  the  lat- 
ter penetrates  to  a  considerable  depth  and  is  deeply 
colored  by  multiple  reflections.  If  the  nap  ends  away 
from  the  light,  there  is  more  reflection  and  less  pene- 
tration; therefore,  there  is  also  less  change  in  color. 

Effect  of  Dyes  in  Matching  Colors 

Materials  dyed  with  aniline  dyes  may  be  matched 
better  in  the  daytime  because  many  aniline  dyes  have  a 
fluorescent  appearance;  that  is,  they  possess  the  prop- 
erty of  giving  off  under  some  kinds  of  light  a  color 
different  from  their  own  and  from  the  light  in  ques- 
tion. 

Effect  of  Adjacent  Colors 

In  accordance  with  the  law  of  complementary  col- 
ors, many  shades  and  tints  are  affected  by  the  proxim- 


190 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


ity  of  other  colors.  This  is  especially  true  when  neu- 
tral or  grayed  colors  are  placed  near  colors  of  full  in- 
tensity. For  instance,  a  black  pattern  on  a  red  ground 
looks  blue-green,  and  white  surrounding  green  looks 
pink.  For  this  reason  the  salesperson  should  be  care- 
ful to  put  away  all- silks  except  the  materials  that  the 
customer  is  considering. 

Tone  of  Color 

Colors  at  their  full  intensity  are  less  affected  than 
either  the  lighter  or  deeper  tones  under  artificial  light ; 
but  daylight  is  sometimes  needed  to  bring  out  the  full 
beauty  and  richness  of  shades  of  color;  most  pale  col- 
ors and  tints  are  warmed  and  heightened  by  artificial 
light. 

Accurate  Measurement 

In  selling  yard  goods  accurate  measurement  is  nec- 
essary. An  example  may  be  noted  where  four  short 
pieces  of  silk  were  bought,  each  one  supposedly  a  quar- 
ter of  a  yard  in  length.  The  silk  pieces,  besides  being 
cut  unevenly,  each  measured  from  three  to  four  inches 
over  the  nine  inches,  in  which  case  the  loss  to  the  store 
was  fully  three-eighths  of  a  yard  of  silk. 

Salespeople  should  avoid  making  new  folds  and 
creases  in  displaying  goods  on  counters  and  in  putting 
them  away  on  shelves.  When  wrapped  for  delivery, 
goods  should  be  so  folded  as  to  avoid  creases  which 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  PURCHASERS       191 

cannot  be  smoothed  out.     Rolling  the  silk  is  the  best 
way  to  prevent  creasing. 

Laundering  and  Care  of  Silk 

Wash  silks  or  silks  which  are  so  light  in  color  that 
they  soil  easily  are  often  ruined  by  improper  handling 
in  laundering. 

Heat,  whether  hot  water,  a  hot  iron,  or  hot  sun- 
shine, yellows  silk.  Therefore  the  water  and  the  irons 
used  in  the  laundering  should  be  medium  hot  and  the 
silk  should  be  rolled,  while  wet,  in  a  heavy  cloth  and 
allowed  to  remain  until  it  is  dry  enough  for  ironing. 

White  soap  should  be  used,  which  should  be  dis- 
solved in  the  water,  and  not  rubbed  directly  on  the 
silk.  Strong  soaps  have  a  tendency  to  turn  silk  yel- 
low and  to  destroy  the  gloss.  Silk  should  be  handled 
carefully  while  in  the  water;  it  should  be  squeezed, 
and  not  rubbed  and  twisted. 

All  rinse  waters  should  be  of  the  same  temperature 
as  the  first  water.  A  little  bluing  may  be  used  if 
desired,  the  bluing  water  being  also  of  the  same  tem- 
perature. For  the  last  wringing,  silk  may  be  wrapped 
in  a  heavy  towel  or  cloth  and  wrung,  instead  of  being 
twisted,  by  itself. 

Laundering  often  takes  away  the  little  dressing 
which  was  originally  in  the  silk.  A  new  appearance 
or  a  redressing  may  be  given  the  silk  by  using  gum 
arabic  in  the  last  rinse  water.     Gum  arabic  comes 


192 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


either  in  powdered  or  lump  form.  If  the  powder  is 
used,  one  or  two  teaspoon fuls  should  be  dissolved  in  a 
quart  of  warm  water  and  then  strained  for  use.  If 
in  lump  form  the  gum  should  be  put  in  boiling  water 
and  the  water  kept  hot  until  the  gum  is  dissolved.  A 
quarter  of  a  cup  of  this  solution  should  be  used  to  a 
quart  of  water.  Too  much  gum  arabic  stiffens  the 
silk. 

When  ironing  silk  on  the  right  side  the  safest  method 
is  to  place  a  thin  cloth  over  the  silk.  This  cloth  may 
be  dampened  if  parts  of  the  silk  dry  before  ironing. 
Sprinkling  might  spot  the  silk.  Silk  may  also  be 
ironed  directly  on  the  wrong  side.  Silk  well  laundered 
will  be  soft  like  new. 

Mixtures  of  silk  and  cotton,  or  silk  and  linen,  and 
any  material  with  silk  embroidery  should  be  treated 
as  silk. 

Laundering  Ribbons 

The  best  way  to  launder  ribbons  is  to  wet  and 
stretch  them  on  a  clean  table,  then  rub  them  with  a 

» 

soft  brush  and  neutral  soap  suds  until  clean.  Rinse 
in  a  clear  water,  never  wrinkling  the  ribbon,  but  keep- 
ing it  smooth  and  straight.  If  the  hand  is  run  down 
the  ribbon,  some  of  the  water  can  be  pressed  out. 
Stretch  the  ribbon  on  the  table  again,  rubbing  the 
hand  over  it  to  make  it  very  smooth,  and  allow  it  to 
dry  in  this  position.     It  is  better  to  pin  the  ends  or 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  PURCHASERS 


193 


weight  them,  to  keep  the  silk  smooth  while  drying. 
When  laundered  in  this  way  the  ribbon  will  look  like 
new. 

If  a  salesperson  has  been  careless  in  putting  the 
ribbon  in  an  envelope  and  it  has  become  wrinkled  and 
creased,  it  may  be  wet  thoroughly  and  stretched  on  the 
table.  When  dry  it  will  be  smooth  like  new,  whereas 
if  ironed  it  usually  becomes  flimsy  and  looks  old — ^the 
crisp  new  look  has  been  taken  from  it. 

Cleaning  and  Steaming  Velvet 

Velvet  may  be  cleaned  by  sprinkling  thoroughly  with 
magnesia  or  cornmeal.  Let  it  stand  for  twenty- four 
hours  and  then  brush  off  with  a  soft  brush.  The 
process  may  be  repeated  a  second  time  with  still  better 
results. 

All  velvets  may  be  freshened  and  folds  taken  out 
by  steaming,  as  follows.  Place  a  hot  iron  on  end; 
over  the  bottom  of  it  place  a  wet  cloth.  As  the  steam 
arises  from  the  cloth  hold  the  wrong  side  of  the  velvet 
next  to  the  cloth.  The  steam  passing  through  the 
velvet  will  loosen  the  pressed  down  nap  and  a  light 
brushing  afterwards  with  a  soft  brush  will  raise  the 
nap.  The  steam  from  a  teakettle  may  also  be  used, 
but  this  does  not  furnish  so  broad  a  surface. 


11 


Chapter  XX  ' 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  STOCK  OF  A 
TYPICAL  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

Divisions 

A.  Staple  Silks 

1.  White 

2.  Black 

3.  Plain  Colors 

4.  Evening  Shades 

B.  Novelty  Silks 

1.  Fancy 

2.  Foulards  and  Wash  Silks 

3.  Pongees 

C.  Chiffons,  etc. 

D.  Velvets 

A  —  Staple  Silks 

I.  Materials 
Armure 
Batiste 
Bengaline 
Bolting  Cloth 
Brocade 

Brocaded  Taffeta 
Cachemire  de  Soie 
Charmeuse 
China  Silk 
Chine  Silk 
Corded  Silk 
Crepe 

194 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 

Canton  Crepe 

Crepe  Charmeuse 

Crepe  de  Chine 

Crepe  Meteor 

Damask 

Eolienne 

Epingle 

Faille 

Faille  Frangaise 

Glace  Silk 

Gros  de  Londres 

Grosgrain 

Habutai 

India  Silk 

Japanese  Silk 

Jersey  Cloth 

Kikai 

Liberty  Satin 

Louisine 

Matelasse 

Messaline 

Moire 

Organdie 

Ottoman 

Peau  de  Cygne 

Peau  de  Soie 

Pekin  Stripe 

Rep 


195 


Sat 
Sat 
Sat 
Sat 
Sat 
Sat 
Sat 
Sat 


n 
n 
n 
n 
n 
n 
n 
n 


Brocade 

Charmeuse 

(Cotton-Back) 

Damask 

de  Lyons 

(Double-Faced) 
Duchesse 


■n 


196  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

Satin  Faqonne 

Satin  Merveilleux 

Satin  Regence 

Satin  Rhadame 

Satin  Royal 

Satin  Surah 

Satin  Taffeta 

Silk  Serge 

Surah 

Taffeta 

Voile  • 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 

Twill 

Rib 

Satin 

Brocade 

Double  Cloth 

Jacquard 

3.  Colors 

Black 

White 

Street  Shades  (Normal  and  Grayed  Tones) 

Changeable 

Evening  Colors 

Luminous  Colors 

Tints 

B  —  Novelty  Silks 
I.    Fancy 

I.  Materials 

Printed  Silks 
Crepe 
Taffeta 
Japanese  Silk 


IL 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  1 97 

Brocades 

Satin 

Metal 

Crepe 

Charmeuse 
Striped  Silks 
Plaid  Silks 
Silk  Ginghams 
Cloth  of  Gold  and  Silver 
Radium  Silks 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 

Twill 

Rib 

Satin 

Brocade  or  Jacquard 

Double  Cloth 

3.  Colors 

Normal 
Grayed 

All  Tints  and  Shades 

Combinations    of    Color    with    Black    and 
White 

Foulards  and  Wash  SUks 

1.  Materials 

Foulards 

Crepe  de  Chine 

Japanese  and  China  Silks 

Habutai 

Fancy  Stripes,  Plaids,  Checks 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Twill 
Jacquard 


198  SILK  DEPARTMENT 

3.  Colors 
Normal 
Grayed 

All  Tints  and  Shades 
White 

III.    Pongees 

1.  Materials 

Pongees 
Rajah 
Tussah 
Shantung 
Monk's  Cloth 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 

3.  Colors 

Natural 

Plain  Tints  and  Shades 

White 

Black 

Printed  Figures 

C  —  Chiffons,  Etc. 

I.  Materials 

Plain  Chiffon 
Chiffon  Cloth 
Crepe  Chiffon 
Georgette  Crepe 
Marquisette 
Mousseline  de  Soie 
Grenadine 
Tulle 
Gauze 


A  '> 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 

Gauze  or  Leno 

3.  Colors 

All  Tints  and  Shades 

Black 

White 

Printed  Figures 


199 


D  —  Velvets 


1.  Materials 

Chiffon  Velvet 
Corduroy 
Mirror  Velvet 
Panne  Velvet 
Uncut  Velvet 
Velveteen 
Plush 
Velour 

2.  Weaves 

Pile 
Jacquard 

3.  Colors 

All  Tints  and  Shades 

Black 

White 

Stripes 

Embossed  and  Figured 

Shot  Effects 


Chapter  XXI 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  STOCK  OF  A 
TYPICAL  RIBBON  DEPARTMENT 


Divisions 

A.  Ribbons  by  the  Yard 

B.  Made  Goods 

A  —  Ribbons  by  the  Yard 

1.  Kinds 

Taffeta 

Moire 

Satin 

Glace 

Messaline 

Grosgrain 

Dresden  or  Chine 

Brocade 

Washable 

Tinsel 

Gauze 

Novelty 

Velvet 

2.  Materials 

Real  Silk 
Artificial  Silk 

200 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


201 


Cotton 

Cotton-and-Silk  Mixtures 

3.  Widths 
Taffetas 
Moire 


%  to  12  in. 


Messaline 

Satins 

Grosgrain 

Velvet 

Lingerie 

Fancies 

Brocades 

Tinsel 


«        K 


tt       t( 


(t      €t 


It      tt 


H 


tt 


tt 


tt 


tt 


tt 


tt 


tt 


Vs  to  12  in. 

%  to  12  in. 

%  to  12  in. 

I    to  12  in. 

%  to  12  in. 


4.  Styles 

Hair  Ribbons 

Sash 

Hat  Bandings 

Beltings 

Lingerie 

Fob  and  Watch  Guard 

Millinery 

Tinsel 

Decorative 

5.  Designs 

Conventional 

Floral 

Stripes 

Checks 

Dots, 

Persian 

Dresden 

Printed 

Painted 

Picot  Edge 


"~niii)g 


202 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Black,  White,  Gray,  Red,  Blue, 
Green,  Yellow,  Lavender  in 
Tints  and  Shades 


B  — 


6.  Colors 

Taffeta 

Satin 

Grosgrain 

Moire 

Velvet  —  Same 

Washable  —  White,  Tints  of  Pink,  Blue,  and 

Lavender 
Tinsel  —  Silver  and  Gold 
Gold  and  Silver  on  White  and  Black  Satin, 

Moire  and  Taffeta  backgrounds 
Novelties  —  Dresdens  and  Stripes  in  Colors 
Two  Toned 
Self  Colors 

Made  Goods 

I.  Articles 
Sashes 
Girdles 

Lingerie  and  Tailored  Bows 
Table  Decorations 
Sport  Hat-Bands 
Ribbon  Sachets 
Flowers 
Bags 


^.i 


Appendix 

Books  for  Reference 

Textiles 

Silk    Manufacturing    and    Its    Problems,    James    Chittick. 

James  Chittick,  New  York  City. 
Silk,  Its  Production  and  Manufacture,  Luther  Hooper.    Sir 

Isaac  Pitman  and  Sons,  London. 
Silk  — Its  Origin,  Culture  and  Manufacture.    Corticelli  Co. 
Silk,  the  Real  vs.  the  Imitation.     Brainerd  &  Armstrong,  New 

London,  Conn. 
Skinner's  Silks  and  Satins  — Their  Romantic  Story.    Wm. 

Skinner  &  Sons,  Boston,  Mass. 
The  Story  of  a  Silk  Mill.     Belding  Bros.  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
A  Short  Description  of  Silk  and  Silk  Manufacture.    Cheney 

Bros.,  Boston,  Mass. 
A  Glossary  of  Silk  Terms.    Cheney  Bros.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Textiles,  Woolman  and  McGowan.    Macmillan. 
Textiles,  Paul  H.  Nystrom.    Appleton. 
Textiles,  Wm.  H.  Dooley.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
The  Story  of  Textiles,  Perry  Walton,  J.  S.  Lawrence. 
Household    Textiles,    Charlotte    McGibbs.    Whitcomb    and 

Barrows. 
Wool,  Cotton,  Silk,  Posselt.    Posselt,  Philadelphia. 
Textile  Fibers,  Their  Physical,  Microscopic,  and  Chemical 

Properties,  J.  M.  Mathews.    Wiley. 
The  Chemical  Aspect  of  Silk  Manufacture,  R.  L.  Fernbach. 

Van  Nostrand. 

Weaving 

Hand  Loom  Weaving,  Luther  Hooper.    Macmillan. 
Origin  of  Inventions,  O.  T.  Mason.     Scribner. 
Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture,  O.  T.  Mason.    Apple- 
ton. 

203 


"■"fcEaia. 


204 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  Alice  Morse  Earle.    Macmil- 

lan. 

Color  and  Design 

The  Principles  of  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Color,  M.  E. 
Chevreul.     G.  Bell  &  Sons,  London. 

Color  Harmony  in  Dress,  G.  A.  Audsley.  McBride,  Nast  & 
Co. 

Color  Instruction,  L.  Prang.     Boston. 

Everyday  Art,  Lewis  F.  Day.    B.  T.  Batsford,  London. 

Bases  of  Design,  Walter  Crane.    G.  Bell  &  Co.,  London. 

Textile  Design  and  Color,  W.  Watson.  Longmans,  Green  & 
Co.,  London. 

Nature  in  Ornament,  Lewis  F.  Day.  B.  T.  Batsford  (Lon- 
don) . 

Pattern  Design,  Lewis  F.  Day.    B.  T.  Batsford  (London). 

Design.    The  Prang  Co. 

Design  in  Theory  and  Practice,  E.  A.  Balchelder.  Mac- 
millan. 

Dyeing 

Dyes  and  Dyeing,  C.  E.  Pellew.    McBride  Nast  &  Co. 
Manual  of  Dyeing  and  Textile  Chemistry,  J.  M.  Mathews. 

Wiley. 
Dyeing  of  Textile  Fabrics,  J.  J.  Hummell.    Cassell. 

Leading  Silk  Manufacturers  in  the  United  States 


Astoria  Silk  Works,  Long 
Island  City,  N.  Y. 

American  Silk  Spinning  Co., 
Providence,  R.  I. 

Augusta  Silk  Works,  Pater- 
son,  N.  J. 

Belding  Bros.  &  Co.,  North- 
ampton, Mass. 

Brainerd  &  Armstrong,  New 
London,  Conn. 


Silk  plushes,  broad  and  lining 
silks,  velours,  velvets 

Spun  silk  yams  (Schappe), 
silk  noils 

Wide  and  narrow  ribbons 

Plain  and  fancy,  broad,  dress 
and  lining  silks,  sewing  and 
embroidery  silks 

Embroidery,  sewing,  knit- 
ting, and  crochet  silks, 
dress  silks,  linings 


APPENDIX 


205 


Champlain  Silk  Mills,  Brook- 
lyn &  Whitehall,  N.  Y. 

Cheney  Bros.,  South  Man- 
chester, Conn. 


Corticelli  Silk  Mills,  Nono- 
tuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence, 
Mass. 

Doherty  &  Wadsworth  Co., 
Paterson,  N.  J. 

Duplan  Silk  Co.,  Hazelton, 
Pa. 

Doherty  Silk  Co.,  Henry, 
Paterson,  N.  J. 

Dundee  Textile  Co.,  Passaic, 
N.  J. 

Empire  Silk  Co.,  Paterson, 
N.  J.;  Carbondale,  Pa. 

Eagle,  J.  H.  &  C.  K.,  Sha- 
mokin,  Pa. 

Gallia  Silk  Mills,  Bethle- 
hem, Pa. 

Hand  &  Sons,  John,  Pater- 
son, N.  J. 

Hamlet  Textile  Co.,  Woon- 
socket,  R.  I. 

Klots  Throwing  Co.,  Carbon- 
dale    Pa. 

Lehigh  Valley  Silk  Mills, 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Maliinson  &  Co.,  H.  R.,  Long 
Island  City,  N.  Y. 


Spun  silk  yarns  (Schappe), 
silk  tops,  silk  noils 

Spun  silk  yarns,  thrown  silks, 
organzine,  trams,  broad, 
dress,  lining  and  tie  silks, 
cotton  -  and  -  silk  mixed 
goods,  cravats,  plushes, 
velvets,  decorative  silks, 
ribbons,  upholstery  goods, 
handkerchiefs,  mufflers, 
hat  bands,  dress  and  coat 
trimmings,  silk  for  insulat- 
ing 

Machine  twist,  sewing,  em- 
broidery, and  knitting  silks 

Plain    and    Jacquard    dress 

silks 
Plain   and   fancy   piece-dyed 

silks 
Broad  silks 

Plain  and  Fancy  silks,  silk- 
mixed  goods 

Plain  and  fancy  dress  and 
tie   silks 

Broad  silks  and  commission 
throwing 

Plain  and  fancy  broad  silks 

Ribbons,  dress  and  tie  silks 

Plain   and    fancy   dress   lin- 
ings, silks 
Commission  throwsters 

Commission  throwsters 
Plain  and  fancy  dress  silks 


2o6 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Meyer  Silk  Mills  Co.,  John 
H.,  Northampton,  Pa. 

New  London  Wash  Silk  Co., 
New  London,  Conn. 

Paragon  Silk  Co.,  Paterson, 
N.  J. 

Phoenix  Silk  Mfg.  Co.,  Pat- 
erson, N.  J.,  and  Allen- 
town,  Pa. 

Portland  Silk  Co.,  Middle- 
town,  Conn. 

Rossie  Velvet  Co.,  Mystic, 
Conn. 

Skinner  &  Sons,  Wm.,  Hol- 
yoke,  Mass. 

Susquehanna  Silk  Mills, 
Marion,  Ohio 

Schwarzenbach,  Huber  &  Co., 
W.  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Stewart  Silk  Co.,  Easton,  Pa. 

The  Viscose  Co.,  Marcus 
Hook,  Pa. 


Plain  and  fancy  broad  silks 

Knitting,    crochet,    and    em- 
broidery silks 
Broad  silks 

Dress,  lining,  and  tie  silks, 
ribbons 

Plain    and    fancy   dress   and 

lining  silks 
Silk  velvets 

Silks,  satins 

Broad,      tie,      lining      and 

printed     silks,     upholstery 

goods 
Plain   and   fancy  broad  and 

dress,  tie,  lining,  umbrella, 

and  thrown   silks 
Plain  and   fancy  dress  silks 

and  throwing 
Artificial  silk 


APPENDIX 


207 


Glossary  of  Terms  Used  in  the  Silk  Industry* 

Accordion   Pleating.    Narrow   pleating,   similar  to  that  of  an 

accordion. 
Advance  Samples.    Short  lengths  of  patterns  on  which  business 

has  been  done,  furnished  in  advance  to  buyer  to  be  cut  up 

into  sample  cards. 
A  La  Mode.     (French.)     In  fashion. 
Alizarine  Dyes.    A  series  of  very  fast  colors.    Alizarine  is  the 

coloring  principle  in  the  madder  root. 
Anglais.     (French;  pronounced  "Ong-glay.")     English. 
Aniline  Dyes.    Colorings  prepared  from  benzole,  one  of  the 

1  This  list  is  used  by  courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 


constituents  of  coal  tar.    The  name  is  from  anil,  the  indigo 
plant,  as  aniline  is  a  substitute  for  indigo. 

Appreteur.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "ah-preh-teur.")    A  finisher. 

Artificial  Silk.  Cellulose  (wood-pulp,  cotton,  etc.)  chemically 
transformed  into  a  gummy  solution,  threads  of  which,  after 
being  hardened,  present  a  glistening,  white,  silky  appearance. 

Atelier.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "  ah-tel-yah.")    A  workshop. 

AuNE.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "oan.")     Same  as  Ell  —  which  see.    The  iJ4- 

yard  folds  of  silk  goods  are  called  aunes. 
Aureole.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "o-ray-ole";  a  halo.)     A  ring  or  line  which 

appears  round  the  place  where  a  spot  has  been  cleaned  on 

a  fabric. 

Automne.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "o-tom.")    Autumn. 

Back-Reed.  A  reed,  made  of  a  frame  with  threads  or  movable 
wires,  set  in  behind  the  true  reed,  and  which  serves  to  open 
up  the  warp  threads  and  to  hold  back  lint,  etc. 

Bale.  European-silk  bales  weigh,  net,  100  kg.  =  220%  lbs. : 
Japanese  and  Shanghai  bales  are  133H  lbs.;  and  Canton 
bales  are  106^  lbs. 

Batten.  The  lay  or  lathe  of  a  loom  for  striking  the  weft 
threads  home.     Ribbon  battens  are  divided  into  spaces. 

Bave.  (Fr.;  pr.  "bahv.")  The  double  silk  filament  emitted  by 
the  silkworm. 

Bias.  Goods  cut  diagonally  (usually  at  45  degree  angle)  are 
said  to  be  cut  on  the  bias. 

Bleaching.  The  process  of  bleaching,  generally  done  with  sul- 
phur or  peroxide  of  hydrogen  or  sodium  for  silk.  Chlorine 
is  the  principal  agent  in  bleaching  cotton ;  sulphur  in  bleach- 
ing wool. 

Block  Printing.  The  printing  of  fabrics  or  warps  by  means  of 
blocks  with  patterns  worked  on  their  faces.  This  is  all 
hand-work. 

Blotch    Grounds.    Printed   patterns,    in    which    the   ground   is 

printed  in  black  or  color,  instead  of  being  left  white. 
Bobbin.    A  spool  upon  which  yarn  is  wound. 
Boiled-off  Silk.    Silk  with  the  gum  discharged,  but  undyed. 

BoiLiNG-OFF.  The  process  of  degumming  silk  threads  or  goods 
by  boiling  in  soap  and  water. 

Bolt.  A  roll  or  piece  of  goods,  of  definite  length,  as  it  comes 
from  the  maker  for  sale. 


E 


M 


iiii 


'm 


208 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


BoNNAz  Machine.  A  small  machine  for  embroidering  figures 
on  woven  goods. 

Book.  A  bundle  of  Asiatic  silk.  Japan  books  weigh,  generally, 
about  4  to  4J^  lbs.,  each  containing  about  50  to  60  skeins. 
China  and  Canton  books  are  heavier. 

Box.  The  receptacle  on  the  loom  in  and  out  of  which  the  shuttle 
passes. 

Box  Work.  Goods  in  which  two  or  more  colors  or  materials  are 
used  in  the  filling. 

Calendering.  The  smoothing  and  pressing  of  goods  between 
ponderous  rollers. 

Carton.    A  pasteboard  box.    Ribbon  boxes  are  called  cartons. 

Catty.  A  Chinese  weight  fixed  by  treaty  at  i^  lbs.  Also 
known  as  "  Chin." 

Chafe-Marks.  Whitish  marks  in  piece-dyed  goods,  due  to 
roughening  or  displacement  of  fibers. 

Chaine.     (Fr.;  pr.  "  shane.")     Warp. 

China  Curlies.  A  variety  of  waste  made  in  reeling  China  raw 
silk. 

Chop.    The  brand  used  to  identify  any  make  of  Asiatic  raw  silk. 

Chrysalis.    The  pupa  of  the  silkworm,  enclosed  in  the  cocoon. 

Cleaning.    A  treatment  given  to  raw  silk  to  remove  nibs,  slugs, 

etc.    The  removing  of  spots,  stains,  etc.,  from  woven  goods. 

Coal-Tar  Colors.  Brilliant  coloring  matters,  extracted  from 
coal  tar. 

Cockling.  A  damage  in  silk  goods  from  irregular  shrinkage  of 
the  filling. 

Cocoon.  The  silken  covering  that  the  silkworm  spins  about 
itself. 

Conditioning.  The  exact  determination  of  the  weight  of  silk 
on  the  basis  of  its  normal  condition,  i.  e.,  absolute  dry  weight 
plus  II  per  cent.  The  term  is  also  loosely  used  to  cover 
tests  for  size,  boil-off,  etc. 

CoRDONNET.  (Fr.;  pr.  " cor-don-nay.")  A  silk  used  for  braid- 
ing, knitting,  etc.,  with  a  cable-like  twist  Several  raw-silk 
threads  are  doubled  and  loosely  twisted  in  one  direction  and 
three  of  them  are  joined  and  smartly  twisted  in  the  reverse 
direction. 

Count.    The  number  of  a  yarn,  indicating  its  jrardage  per  pound. 

Couturier.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "coo-toor-jray.")     A  dressmaker. 


APPENDIX 


209 


Craquant.  (Fr.;  pr.  "crah-kong.")  The  "scroop"  or  crunch- 
ing sound  produced  by  twisted  silk. 

Crepe  de  Chine  Twist.  Tram,  hard-twisted  for  crepe  de  chine 
work.    Usually  30  to  75  turns  per  inch. 

Crepe  or  Chiffon  Twist.  Thrown  raw  silk  20  to  100  turns  per 
inch  more  or  less,  for  use  in  making  crepes,  chiffons,  etc. 

Crows'  Feet.  Wrinkled  places  in  goods,  when  they  have  been 
allowed  to  dry  in  a  crumpled  and  creased  condition. 

Cut.  Any  standard  length  of  goods.  Broad-silk  cuts  are  usu- 
ally 60  yds. ;  ribbons,  10  yds. 

Cut  Selvage.  The  edge  where  pieces  have  been  separated  when 
two  or  more  widths  are  woven  together. 

Dbgumming.  The  boiling-off  or  discharging  of  the  gum,  or 
sericin,  from  silk. 

Denier.  A  French  coin,  used  as  a  weight  for  determining  the 
size  of  raw  silk.  It  weighed  24  Paris  grains,  equaling 
19.6728  English  grains.  The  weight  now  used,  called  "  de- 
nier," weighs  .05  grams,  and  the  number  of  these  weights 
required  to  balance  a  skein  of  450  meters,  is  the  denierage 
or  size  of  the  silk.  Dividing  4464,528  by  any  denierage 
gives  its  yardage  per  lb. 

Design.    A  pattern,  or  sketch,  to  be  worked  out  in  the  goods. 

Dessin.     (Fr. ;   pr.   "  des-san.")     Design. 

Diaper  Pattern.  A  small-figured  effect,  usually  made  in  a  dia- 
mond shape. 

Direct-Printing.  Patterns  printed  direct  on  a  cloth  from  the 
rollers  or  blocks. 

Discharge- Printing.  The  printing  on  a  dyed  fabric  with  chem- 
icals that  strip  or  discharge  the  color  when  printed.  Same 
as  extract  printing. 

Discharging.    The  degumming  or  boiling-off  of  silk. 

DoBBY.  A  mechanism  of  limited  scope  for  raising  and  lowering 
harnesses  in  weaving,  somewhat  after  the  idea  of  a  Jac- 
quard  machine. 

Doctor-Marks.  Smears  made  on  a  printed  fabric,  from  bits  of 
lint  being  caught  under  the  "  doctor  blade." 

DouBLE-AND-TwiST.  Threads  doubled  together  and  then  twisted. 
Usually  of  different  colors. 

Double  Ends.    Where  the  warp  ends  are  drawn  in  two  together. 

DouBLE-ovER.     In  weaving,  when  extra  picks  equal  to  50  per  cent 


n 


2IO 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


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of  the  ground  are  woven  in  to  form  small  figures.    Much 
used  in  the  tie-silk  trade. 

Double  Scale.  An  arrangement  of  Jacquard  harness  where  two 
ends  work  together,  producing  an  enlarged  pattern. 

Double  Warp.  A  warp  in  which  there  is  both  a  face  and  back 
warp. 

Doup  Weaving.  The  twisting  of  warp  threads  around  the  fill- 
ing picks  by  employing  special  heddles  or  loops  called 
"  doups." 

DoupioN-DupioN.  (Fr.  doupion;  It.,  doppioni.)  A  rough  ir- 
regular raw  silk,  reeled  from  double  cocoons. 

Dram.  The  He  of  an  ounce.  The  dram  system  is  used  for  the 
counts  of  thrown  silk.  It  is  based  on  i,ooo  yds.  to  the  dram, 
or  256,000  yds.  per  lb.,  for  the  size  of  No.  i.  Dividing 
256,000  by  any  dramage  gives  its  yardage  per  pound. 

Drap.     (Fr.;  pr.  "drah.")     Cloth;  also  wooden  cloth,  etc. 

Drawing-in.  The  passing  of  the  warp  threads  through  the 
eyes  of  the  heddles  in  the  harness. 

Dyeing.  The  coloring  of  silk  and  other  textile  materials,  in- 
cluding the  boiling-off,  weighting,  and  other  processes. 

Dynamited  Silk.    Silk  weighted  with  tin  salts. 

Echantillon.  (Fr.;  ph.  " ay-shon-tee-yong.")  A  sample.  A 
pattern. 

Ecru  Silk.  (Fr.;  pr.  "ay-croo";  unbleached.)  Thrown  silk 
with  but  a  trifiing  amount  of  the  gum  discharged  from  it 

Ell.  An  ancient  measure  of  variable  length.  The  ell  (or  aune) 
on  which  the  denier-aune  system  of  silk  measure  was  based, 
measured  46.79  English  inches. 

Embossing.  The  imprinting  of  raised  designs  on  fabrics  by 
passing  them  under  pressure  between  suitably  engraved 
heated  rollers. 

End.    a  warp  thread. 

End-and-End  Warp.  A  warp  made  of  alternate  threads  of  two 
kinds  or  colors  of  yarn. 

Essay.    A  small  experimental  sample  of  a  fabric  or  design. 
Exf.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "ay-tay.")     Summer. 

Etoffe.    (Fr.;  pr.   "ay-toff.")     Stuff.    Fabric.    Cloth. 

Etoile.     (Fr. :  pr.  **  ay-twoll.")     A  star. 

Extra-Luster.  A  brilliancy  given  to  skein  silk  by  stretching  it 
under  steam  pressure. 


APPENDIX 


211 


Extract  Printing.  The  printing  upon  goods,  previously  dyed, 
with  chemicals  which  extract  the  color.  Same  as  discharge 
printing. 

False-Reed.    Same  as  back-reed. 

Fibroin.    The  insoluble  part  of  the  raw  silk.    The  silk  fiber. 

Filature.  (Fr.)  An  establishment  where  silk  reeling  is  car- 
ried on. 

Filling.    Material  to  be  used  as  weft  in  a  fabric. 

Finishing.  The  various  treatments  accorded  to  goods  after 
weaving  to  improve  their  appearance  and  touch. 

Fiske-Yarn.  a  fancy  yarn,  generally  cotton,  with  showy 
"  flakes  "  or  bits  of  untwisted  list,  at  intervals. 

Floats.  Weaving  imperfections  where  the  filling  "floats"  over 
warp  threads  which  it  should  pass  under,  or  vice  versa. 

Floss  Silk.  A  soft  silk  yarn,  practically  without  twist.  Also 
the  loose  waste  silk  emitted  by  the  worm  when  beginning  to 
spin  its  cocoon. 

Fond.     (Fr.)     The  foundation  or  ground  of  a  pattern. 

Foundation  Weaves.  The  three  primary  weaves,  plain,  twill 
and  satin. 

Four-Scale.  Arrangement  of  Jacquard  harness  which  works 
four  threads  together,  enlarging  the  pattern,  but  with  a 
coarser  outline. 

Francaise.     (Fr. ;  pr.  " Frong-says.")     French. 

Prison.  (Fr. ;  pr.  "free-song.")  Waste  made  in  a  filature  in 
reeling  silk. 

Fullers*  Earth.  A  soft  unctuous  clay,  used  in  scouring  and 
cleaning  cloth. 

Gassing.  The  singeing  of  the  hairiness  from  fabrics  or  jrams, 
usually  by  a  gas  flame. 

Genapping.  Same  as  gassing.  Named  after  Genappc  in  Bel- 
gium. 

Gram.  The  metrical  unit  of  weight.  Equal  to  15432356  Eng- 
lish or  troy  grains. 

Grande  Faqon.  (Fr. ;  pr.  "grahnd  fas-song.")  Literally  the 
complete  working-out.  A  method  of  determining  the  waste 
made  in  throwing. 

Grege.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "grehz.")     Raw  silk. 

Grenadine  Twist.  Organzine,  hard-twisted  to  suit  it  for  grena- 
dine weaving.  Twists  run  from  29^8  to  *'%o  turns  per  inch, 
more  or  less. 


4 

h 


\-^ 


212 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


I 


Grey  Goods.    Goods  for  piece-dyeing  while  still  undyed. 

Gum  Silk.  Thrown  silk  from  which  the  gum  has  not  been  dis- 
charged. 

Hair-line  Stripes.  Patterns  showing  very  narrow  stripings  of 
sharply  contrasting  colors. 

Hand.    The  touch  or  handle  of  goods. 

Hard  Silk.  Thrown  silk  from  which  the  gum  has  not  been  dis- 
charged. 

Hard  Twist.  Raw  silk,  twisted  very  hard  in  throwing,  suitable 
for  use  in  chiffons,  crepes,  etc. 

Harness.  A  series  of  frames  equipped  with  heddles,  and 
mounted  in  a  loom,  through  which  the  warp  ends  pass,  and 
which,  as  they  are  alternately  raised  and  lowered,  open  the 
warp  for  the  shuttle  to  pass.  A  Jacquard  harness  is  differ- 
ently arranged. 

Harness  Skips.  Weaving  imperfections  where  a  row  of  warp 
ends  *'  skips  "  over  filling  threads  that  they  should  be  under. 

Haute.     (Fr.;  pr.  "boat.")     High. 

Haute  NouvEAUTfe.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "  hoat-noo-vo-tay.")    High  nov- 
elty. 
Head  Ends.    Same  as  headings. 

Headings.  The  beginning  and  ending  of  a  piece  of  goods,  gen- 
erally woven  with  some  remnant  material  for  filling. 

Heald.    Same  as  heddle. 

Heddle.  a  thread  or  wire  leash,  attached  to  a  harness  frame, 
and  having  an  eye  in  the  center  through  which  a  warp  thread 
passes. 

Herringbone.    Striped  patterns  woven  in  a  chevron  effect. 

High  Pile.  A  long  pile  such  as  occurs  in  plushes,  distinguished 
from  low  piles,  as  in  velvets. 

Hiver.     (Fr.;  pr.  "ee-vair.")     Winter. 

Honeycomb.  A  character  of  weave  showing  hollows,  like  a 
bedspread  pattern. 

Jacquard.  (Fr. ;  pr.  "zhah-car.")  Joseph  Marie  Jacquard 
(born  1752,  died  1834),  French  mechanician,  inventor  of  the 
Jacquard  machine  exhibited  in  1801. 

Jacquard  Card.  Long  cards,  laced  together,  and  punched  with 
holes,  which  govern  the  patterns  woven  on  a  Jacquard  loom. 

Jacquard  Design.  A  pattern  produced  by  means  of  the  Jac- 
quard machine. 


APPENDIX 


213 


Joseph's  Coat.  A  warp  made  in  stripes  to  weave  small  samples 
of  various  colors.     Same  as  sample  blanket. 

KiBisso.  (Japanese.)  A  name  for  certain  wastes  made  in  raw- 
silk  reeling. 

Kilogram.  A  metric  weight  of  1,000  grams  equal  to  2.2046223 
lbs. 

Kin.  a  Japanese  weight  equals  1.325 1  lbs.,  commercially  fig- 
ured as  1.3277  lbs.,  so  that  756  kin  weigh  1,000  lbs.  Japanese 
raw-silk  quotations  are  in  yen  per  kin. 

Lappet  Loom.  A  loom  equipped  with  an  apparatus  for  weaving 
embroidered  effects  upon  an  otherwise  plain  cloth. 

Lease.  The  series  of  crossings  in  the  threads  of  a  warp,  in 
which  each  warp  thread,  in  turn,  is  passed  alternately  over 
and  under  a  rod  or  cord. 

Leash.     Same  as  heddle. 

Leno  Weaving.  A  method  of  weaving  open-mesh  fabrics  where 
the  warp  threads  twist  around  the  filling  threads,  as  in 
grenadine. 

Ligne.     (Fr.;  pr.  "lean.")     The  K2  of  a  French  inch,  used  in 

ribbon  measures,  and  which  equals  .0883  English  inches. 
Loading.    The  weighting  or  adulteration  of  silk. 
Loom.    A  machine  in  which  cloth  is  woven. 

Loom  Mounting.  Arranging  a  warp,  with  its  harness,  reed, 
etc.,  in  a  loom,  ready  for  weaving. 

Lousy  Silk.  Silk  which,  when  woven  into  fabrics,  shows  many 
light-colored  specks  on  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 

Low-PiLE.  A  pile  fabric  in  the  velvet  class,  not  having  as  long 
a  pile  as  in  plush. 

Machine-Twist.  Thread  specially  prepared  for  use  on  the  sew- 
ing machine. 

Magazine  Loom.  A  loom  provided  with  a  lot  of  wound  quills 
or  bobbins,  which  are  automatically  introduced  into  the 
shuttle. 

Marabout,  or  Marabou  Silk.  White  silk,  well-twisted,  and 
dyed  without  discharging  the  gum ;  used  in  making  imitation 
marabout  feathers. 

Metallic  Dye.  An  extra  luster,  given  to  silk  by  steam-stretch- 
ing the  skeins. 

Meter.  The  standard  linear  measure  of  the  metric  system, 
equivalent  to  39.370432  English  inches. 


214 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Metric  Count.    The  numbering  applied  to  yarns,  when  based 

upon  the  metric  system. 
MicuiT.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "mee-kwee";  half  done.)     A  silk  in  which 

about  half  the  gum  is  allowed  to  remain  when  dyed. 

Mill-Ends.    The  remnants  of  goods  that  accumulate  at  mills. 

MiSE-EN-cARTE.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "  mees-ong-cart.")     A  pattern  as  laid 
out  on  the  squared  desigfn  paper  for  the  card  cutter. 

MisPiCK.    An  imperfection  in  a  cloth  caused  by  a  filling  thread 

not  interlacing  with  the  right  warp  ends.    The  omission  of 

a  filling  thread  in  weaving. 
MoMMiE.     (Jap.)     A   Japanese   weight   equal   to  57.674  grains; 

one  pound  equals  i2cWoo  mommies. 
Mordant.    The   substance  employed  to  fix  upon  the  goods  the 

color  produced  by  the  dyestufF. 

Motif.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "mo-teef";  motive.)     Applied  to  small,  dis- 
tinctive, pattern  effects. 

Narrow  Goods.    Ribbons,  tapes,  and  similar  fabrics. 

Noil  Yarns.    Yarn  made  from  noils,  very  lumpy  and  unelastic. 

Noils.    Short,  lumpy  fiber,  left  after  the  combing  process  in  the 

manufacture  of  spun  silk. 
Noshi  Ito.     (Jap.)    A  variety  of  waste  made  in  reeling  raw 

silk. 
Nouveau.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "noo-vo.")     New.    Novel. 
Nuance.     (Fr. ;  pr.  "  noo-ongce.")     A  shade  or  tint. 

One    Hundred    Per    Cent   Throwing    Method.    A   method   of 

dealing  with  the  wastage  made  in  throwing,  by  which  the 

throwster  pays  for  all  waste  made,  being  compensated  by  a 

proper  addition  to  his  price  for  throwing. 
Organzine.    Silk  prepared  for  warp  purposes  of  two  (or  more) 

raw  silk  threads  well-twisted  both  in  the  singles  and  in  the 

two-ply. 
Pantograph.    An  apparatus  used  for  transferring  the  designs 

for  printing  from  the  pattern  sketches  to  the  printing  rollers, 

prior  to  etching  them. 
Pari.     (Fr. ;   pr.   "pah-ree.")     The  weight  of  gum  silk  before 

boiling  off. 
Pastel  Colors.    Shades  having  a  chalky  or  hazy  appearance. 
Pattern  Warp.    Same  as  sample  blanket. 
Pecul,  Picul.    a  Chinese  weight  of  133%  lbs.  used  in  the  silk 

trade. 


APPENDIX 


215 


Pesant.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "peh-song.")    Weight. 

Pick.    A  filling  thread  in  a  cloth. 

Picking.  Removing  odd  threads,  lumps,  or  similar  blemishes 
from  woven  fabrics.  The  movement  of  a  loom  as  it  drives 
the  shuttle  across.  In  cotton  or  wool  spinning,  a  preliminary 
opening  up  given  to  the  stock  to  prepare  it  for  carding. 

Piece.  A  length  of  goods.  Broad  silks  are  usually  made  in 
60-yd.  pieces.    Ribbons  in  lo-yd.  pieces. 

Piece-Dyeing.    The  dyeing  of  fabrics  in  the  woven  piece. 

Pierced  Cocoons.  Cocoons  from  which  the  moths  have  emerged, 
being  thus  rendered  useless  for  reeling. 

Pile  Fabrics.  Fabrics  with  pile  faces,  such  as  velvets,  plushes, 
etc. 

Plated  Yarn.  A  thread,  having  as  a  core  a  thread  of  cheap 
material  round  which  is  twisted  a  superior  fiber,  as  a  cot- 
ton thread  twisted  round  with  worsted,  silk,  or  metal. 

Plush.  A  fabric  with  a  pile  face,  the  pile  being  longer  than 
velvet. 

PoiL.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "pwahl";  hair,  etc.)    The  silk  core  yarn  in 

a  thread. 
Polishing.    A  treatment  given  to  goods  in  finishing  to  improve 

the  luster. 
Printemfs.    (Fr.;  pr.  " pran-tong.")     Spring. 
Printing.    The  impressing  of  patterns  on  warps  or  fabrics  by 

means  of  rollers  or  blocks. 
Pure-Dye.    Silk  colored,  but  unweighted. 
Quarter-over.    In  weaving,  where  extra  picks,  equal  to  25  per 

cent  of  the  ground,  are  woven  in  to  form  small  figures; 

much  used  in  tie  silks. 
Quill.    The  shuttle  bobbin  on  which  the  silk  weft  is  wound. 
Quilling.    Winding  filling  onto  the  quills. 
Raw  (^ds.    Fabrics  made  for  dyeing  in  the  piece. 
Raw  Silk.    Silk  as  it  has  been  reeled  from  the  cocoons. 
Rayon.     (Fr.;  pr.  "ray-ong.")     A  ray,  or  stripe. 

Reed.  A  metal  comb,  closed  at  top  and  bottom,  for  keeping 
ing  warp  threads  separate,  and  fixed  in  the  loom  so  that  it 
beats  up  each  pick  woven  into  the  cloth. 

Reeding.  The  arrangement  of  threads  in  a  reed,  generally 
stated  as  ^,  ''94,  etc.,  the  first  number  being  the  number  of 


2l6 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


:H|]H| 


dents,  or  divisions,  per  inch  in  the  reed,  and  the  second 
showing  the  number  of  threads  in  a  dent. 

Reed-Marks.  Streaks  in  goods  due  to  faulty  reeds,  or  to  the 
use  of  an  unduly  coarse  reed  for  the  goods. 

Reed  Ombr£;.  Shaded  striped  efifects  made  in  weaving  by  pass- 
ing the  warp  threads  through  the  reed  in  a  graduated  man- 
ner. 

Reference  Samples.  Small  cuttings  of  goods,  as  those  attached 
to  an  order  sheet. 

Regain.  A  standard  percentage  of  moisture  to  be  added  to  an 
absolutely  dried-out  textile  material  to  bring  it  to  its  normal 
or  "conditioned"  weight.  This  in  silk  is  ii  per  cent;  in 
cotton,  8^  per  cent;  in  linen,  12  per  cent;  and  in  worsted 
yarn,  18H  per  cent. 

Resist-Printing.  Printing  textiles  with  a  waxy  or  other  prepa- 
ration which  resists  dyeing.  Goods  are  then  piece-dyed  and 
the  wax  or  "  resist "  is  removed  with  benzine,  etc.,  the  fig- 
ure so  made  showing  white  against  the  dyed  ground. 

Reversible.  Both  sides  alike,  as  a  cloth.  A  reversible  pattern 
is  one  in  which  the  figures  point  both  ways. 

Ribbon,  Riband,  Ribband.    A  narrow  fabric  made  of  silk. 

Roller- Printing.  The  printing  of  patterns  from  engraved  cop- 
per rollers. 

RuBAN.    (Fr. ;  pr.  "roo-bon.")     Ribbon. 

Sample-Blanket.  A  short  length  of  goods,  made  for  samples, 
having  sections  of  different  colors  in  the  warp,  and  shot 
with  a  variety  of  different  fillings. 

Schappe.    (Fr.;  pr.  "shap.")     Spun-silk  yarn. 

Scroop.  The  peculiar  crunchy  sound  that  silk  makes  when 
squeezed.  It  can  be  artificially  produced  by  an  acid  treat- 
ment in  the  dyeing. 

Selvage,  Selvedge.  The  edge  of  a  cloth,  usually  heavier  and 
differently  woven. 

Sen.  a  Japanese  coin,  value  one-half  cent,  U.  S. ;  100  sen=» 
I  yen  =  49.842  cents  gold,  U.  S. 

Sericin.    The  soluble  gum  of  the  silk  fiber. 

Sewing  Silk.  Silk  especially  thrown  and  twisted  for  use  as 
sewing  thread. 

Shaft.    A  harness  frame  for  a  loom. 

Shaft  Loom.    A  harness  loom. 


APPENDIX 


217 


Shepherd  Plaids.  Checks  or  plaids,  as  worn  by  the  Scotch 
shepherds. 

Shoot.    Weft,  filling. 

Shot  Silk.  Fabrics  with  warp  and  fillings  of  sharply  contrast- 
ing colors. 

Shower- Proof,  or  Rain-Proof.  Goods  treated  to  resist  spotting 
by  water. 

Shuttle.  The  implement  by  which  the  filling  thread  is  shot  to 
and  fro  in  weaving. 

Shuttle-Work.    Fabrics  in  which  two  or  more  kinds  of  mate- 
rials or  colors  are  used  in  the  filling. 
Silk-gum  Sericin.    The  soluble  content  in  raw  silk. 

Silk  Noils.  A  short,  lumpy  waste,  remaining  after  the  combing 
of  spun  silk. 

Silk  Reeling.  The  production  of  raw  silk  by  unwinding  the 
silk  from  the  cocoons. 

Silk  Waste.  Wastages  in  the  various  branches  of  the  silk 
industry,  including  pierced  cocoons. 

Singeing.  Removing  the  hairiness  from  fabrics  or  yam  by 
singeing,  usually  done  by  means  of  gas  flames. 

Single-and-Double  Warp.  Warps  made  with  an  alternation  of 
ends,  giving  two  ends  on  the  face  for  one  on  the  back,  and 
vice  versa. 

Singles.  Threads  of  raw  silk,  thrown  or  twisted,  in  the  single 
thread. 

Single-Scale.  The  tie-up  of  a  Jacquard  loom  where  each  end 
works  singly. 

Single- Weaving.  The  weaving  of  warps  made  of  single  raw- 
silk  ends,  unthrown. 

Sizing.  The  treatment  of  warps,  or  other  threads,  or  goods, 
with  a  size  to  render  them  firm  and  smooth.  Also  the  test- 
ing of  3rarns  to  determine  their  sizes. 

Skein  Threads  reeled  into  a  coil  or  hank.  Usually  45  to  54 
mches  in  circumference. 

Skein-Dyeing.  The  boiling-off,  weighting,  coloring,  etc.,  of 
silks,  or  other  skein  yarns. 

Slugs.    Soft  thick  lumps  in  a  yarn. 

Smash.    Hundreds  of  broken  ends  in  a  warp,  where  the  loom 

has  beaten  up  before  the  shuttle  has  passed  through. 
Soft  Silk.    Thrown  silk  jram,  degummed,  dyed,  or  undyed. 


2l8 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


SoiE.     (Fr.;  pr.  "swah.")     Silk. 

SoiE  Ondee.  (Fr.;  pr.  "  swah-ong-day ";  literally,  "silk  undu- 
lated.") Silk  prepared  by  doubling  and  twisting  together 
a  very  coarse  and  a  very  fine  thread.  When  used  for  mak- 
ing gauze  it  imparts  to  it  a  watered  appearance. 

SoiERiE.  (Fr.;  pr.  "swah-ree.")  "Silk"  in  general,  i.e.,  silk 
goods,  silk  mills,  silk  trade,  etc. 

SoLEiL.  (Fr.;  pr.  "sol-ay";  the  sun.)  Often  used  in  connec- 
tion with  fabric  names. 

SouPLE  Silk.    Dyed  skein-silk  from  which  but  little  gum  has 
been  discharged.     Silk  so  treated  is  firmer  but  less  lustrous. 
Spaces.    The  openings  in  the  batten  of  a  ribbon  loom. 

Split-Edge.  Goods  woven  two  or  more  widths  together,  being 
afterward  cut  or  split  apart. 

Spun  Silk.  Silk  yarn  made  from  silk  wastes,  and  spun  in  a 
similar  manner  to  worsted. 

Spun-Silk  Count.  Same  as  the  cotton  scale  of  840  yds.  to  the 
number,  except  that  two  or  more  ply  yarns  are  stated  dif- 
ferently; %oo.  for  instance,  in  cotton,  counting  same  as  ^; 
while  ^00  in  spun  silk  counts  the  same  as  Hoo-  Continental 
spun  silks  are  sold  on  metric  counts. 

Steam -Stretched.    Silk  skeins,   smartly   stretched  under  steam 

pressure.    This  greatly  increases  the  luster. 
Stripping.     Removing  the  sericin  from  silk  by  "boiling  off." 
Surface-Print.    A  pattern  printed  on  a  woven  fabric. 

Swatch.  A  sample  or  strip  of  goods  cut  across  the  width  of 
the  fabric. 

Swift.  A  light  reel  on  which  silk  skeins  are  spread  for  un- 
winding. 

Swivel  Figures.  Figures  embroidered  on  cloth  by  the  use  of  a 
swivel  batten  on  the  loom. 

Swivel  Loom.  A  loom  with  a  swivel  batten  adapted  for  weav- 
ing detached  figures  on  goods. 

Synthetic  Color.  A  dyestuff  compounded  chemically  to  dupli- 
cate a  natural  coloring  matter. 

Tael.  A  Chinese  measure  of  value  approximately  i^  02.  av. 
of  silver,  but  varying  in  different  districts.  There  is  no 
current  coin  of  the  tael.  Value  in  U.  S.  gold  is  approxi- 
mately .642  for  the  Canton  tael,  and  .588  for  the  Shanghai 
tael,  but  varies  with  the  price  of  silver. 

Tartan.    A  Scotch  woolen  stuff,  woven  in  the  patterns  of  the 


APPENDIX 


219 


plaids  of  Highland  clans;  hence  used  as  a  synonym  of  a 
clan  plaid. 

Teinte.    (Fr.;  pr.  "tant")    Tint.    Color.    Shade. 

Tender  CjOods.  Fabrics  not  commercially  strong  enough  for 
their  intended  uses,  including  those  made  weak  by  improper 
dyeing. 

Three-Scale.  A  method  of  arranging  a  Jacquard  harness 
where  three  warp  ends  work  together,  giving  a  correspond- 
ing larger  repeat  than  a  single-scale  pattern,  but  with  coarser 
outline. 

Throwing.  Twisting,  and  otherwise  manipulating,  raw-silk 
threads. 

Throwster.    One  who  conducts  a  silk-throwing  business. 

Thrum.  The  end  of  a  warp  where  the  threads  are  knotted 
together. 

Tinsel.  Thread  of  fine  flattened  wire,  twisted  round  a  silk 
or  cotton  core;  usually  made  of  copper  and  finished  in  gold 
or  silver. 

Touche.     (Fr.;  pr.  "toosh";  touch.)     Handle  or  feel  of  goods. 

Tram.    Raw-silk  threads  doubled  and  twisted.    Used  for  filling. 

Traverse.    A  to-and-fro  motion,  as  in  winding  silk  on  a  bobbin. 

Trevet,  Trivet  (Eng.)  :  Trevette  (Fr.).  The  sliding  knife  or 
cutter  used  in  cutting  velvets  woven  double. 

TussAH,  TussuR,  Tussore.  Wild-silk  of  a  brownish  color, 
largely  produced  in  India  and  China. 

Twisting-in.  The  uniting  of  the  threads  of  a  new  warp  to 
those  of  one  woven  out,  by  twisting  the  threads  together. 

Twist  Silk.    Silk  thread  prepared  for  sewing  purposes. 

Type  Piece.    A   sample  piece  of  goods  made  to  represent  a 

quality. 
ViGouREUx  Printing.    A  method  of  printing  textile  fibers  so  as 

to  produce  a  mixture  effect  in  the  yarns  and  goods.    Named 

after  the  inventor. 

Warp.  The  threads  which  run  lengthwise  in  a  fabric.  A  very 
usual  length  is  300  yds. 

Warping.  The  process  of  making  warps  from  silk  or  other 
yarns. 

Warp  Print.    A  pattern  printed  on  a  warp  previous  to  weaving. 

Water- Proofing.  Treatment  for  rendering  fabrics  impervious 
to  moisture. 


220 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Weave.    The  manner  of   interlacing  the  threads  in  a   fabric. 

The  construction  or  design. 
Weaving.    The  interlacing  of  the  weft  with  the  warp  in  fabric 

construction. 
Weft.    The  crosswise  threads  in  a  fabric.    The  filling. 
Weighting.    The  loading  used  to  increase  the  weight  and  bulk 

of  silk. 
Winding.    Transferring  silk  from  skeins  onto  bobbins. 
Woof.    Same  as  weft. 
Wrong-Draw.    An  imperfection  in  cloth,  due  to  a  warp  end 

having  been  drawn  through  the  wrong  heddle. 
Yen.    a  monetary  unit  of  Japan,  having  a  value  of  49.842  cents, 

gold. 

Names  Descriptive  of  Characteristics  of  Fabrics  ^ 


French 
Abbatr6 

A  jour 

Appliqu^ 

Appret 
Barr6 
Bayadere 
Bordure 

Bosseli 
Boucle 


Pronunciation  Description 

abat-ray  Applied   to   patterns  with 

depressed  effects. 
ah  zhoor  Open-work  effects. 


ap-lee-kay 

»p-pray 
bah-ray 
by-ad-air 
bord-00-ray 

5os-el-ay 
boo-clay 


As  designs  made  by  stitch- 
ing braiding  on  the  gar- 
ment. 

The  sizing  or  dressing  ap- 
plied to  goods. 

Effects  of  a  cross-over 
stripe  character. 

Broad  and  lively  cross 
stripes. 

Describes  goods  with  a 
woven  or  printed  bor- 
der pattern. 

Patterns  made  by  emboss- 
ing. 

Applied  to  goods  in  which 
are  novelty  yarns  show- 
ing curly  loops. 

A  shirred  or  rippled  ef- 
fect. 


Bouillonni        boo-yon-nay 

1  This  list  is  used  by  courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 


English 

Depressed  — 
sunken 

"  To-day,"  as  "  ex- 
posed to  the 
day" 

Applied  —  laid    on 

Finish  —  dressing 
Barred 
Bayadere 
Bordered 

Embossed 
Curled 


Shirred  —  gath- 
ered 


APPENDIX 

221 

French 

Pronunciation 

Description 

English 

Bourr6 

boo-ray 

Effects  where  the  pattern 
has  a  stuffed  or  wadded 
character. 

Stu£Fed 

Boyau 

boy-o 

A  stripe,  or  edging,  of  a 
cord-like  character. 

Pipe  —  hose 

Brillant 

bree-yong 

Shiny.  This  name  is 
given  to  a  chiffon-like 
fabric  made  of  un- 
twisted raw  silk. 

Bright 

Brillant^ 

bree-yon-tay 

Something  very  irides- 
cent. 

Glittering 

Broche 

broshay 

Showing    a    certain    kind 

Figured  — 

of  figured  effect. 

stitched 

Brod« 

bro-day 

Figured  in  a  manner  sim- 
ilar to  embroidery. 

Embroidered 

Broderie 

bro-de-ree 

Embroidery 

Camaieu 

cam-ah-yeu 

Made  with  different 
shades  of  the  same 
color. 

Cameo 

Cam61eon 

kam-ay-lay-ohn 

A  three-tone  glace  effect. 

Chameleon,   a    liz- 
ard that  changes 
color 

Canille 

can-eel 

A     jointed     effect,     with 

Cane-like 

Cannel^ 


can-el-lay 


stripes  broken  at  inter- 
vals by  knots  or  small 
squares,  like  a  bamboo 
effect. 
Narrow      fancy      broken    Fluted 
stripings. 


Carri 

cab- ray 

Checkered  effects. 

Squared 

Carreau 

cah-ro 

A  check,  or  block. 

Square 

Changeant 

shong-zhong 

Shot  effects,  as  from  con- 
trasting colors. 

Changeable 

Charmant 

shar-mong 

Used  when  something  is 
specially  dainty 

Charming 

Charmeuse 

char-meuz 

Applied  to  a  certain  rich 

piece-dyed  fabric. 
A  crepe- warp  satin. 

Charmer 

Chenille 

chen-eel 

V^elvety  silk-cord. 

Chenille  (Fr.)— 
A    caterpillar 

Chin6 

she-nay 

Blurred,  soft,  indistinct, 
as  a  warp  printed  effect. 

Colored  —  ting«d 

Oart* 

dar-tay 

Clear  in  outline,  well  de- 
fined. 

Clearness 

222 


French 

Pronunciation 

Color* 

co-lo-ray 

Coquill6 

co-kee-yay 

Coteli 

co-tel-lay 

Craquel* 

crahq-lay 

Crep6 
Croise 

creh-pay 
crwoz-ay 

Damass* 
Damier 

dam-as- say 
dam-yay 

De  luxe 

de  looks 

Dentel6 

don-tel-lay 

Dentelle 
Deux  tons 

don-tell 
deu  tong 

Ecossaise 
£cras6 

ay-cossays 
ay-crah-say 

Epingl6 

ay-pang-glay 

Exquis 

ex-quec 

PaQonn* 

fah-son-nay 

Fantaisie 

fan-ta-zee 

Festonn* 

fes-ton-nay 

Feutr* 

feu-tray 

Ploconn* 

flo-con-nay 

Pone* 

fon-say 

SILK  DEPARTMENT 


Description 

Colored  by  dyeing  or 
otherwise. 

Made  with  scalloped  pat- 
terns or  edges. 

Having  distinct  ribs  or 
wales. 

Effect  like  crackled  glass. 

Made  with  crapy  effect. 
Applied      to      a      velvet 

weave,    with    a    twilled 

back. 
Figured  brocade. 
A  checker-board. 

Something  superlatively 
fine. 

Applied  to  certain  kinds 
of  edges. 

Open  work,  lacey  effects. 

Warp  and  filling  of  con- 
trasting colors. 

Scotch     tartan     patterns. 

A  pattern  with  a  crushed 
or  flattened  effect. 

Largely  applied  to  fabrics 
having  ribs  of  alternat- 
ing sizes,  or  colors. 

Of  the  highest  charac- 
ter. 

Applied  to  Jacquard  fig- 
ured fabrics. 

Novelty  effect,  or  special- 
ly high  quality. 

Applied  to  certain  kinds 
of  edges. 

Used  to  describe  the 
furry  backs  on  some 
satins. 

Fabrics  in  which  appear 
flakes  or  tufts  of  con- 
trasting colors. 

Thus  "  rouge  fono6  "  is 
liver  colored. 


English 
Colored 

Shell-like  —  scal- 
loped 
Ribbed 

Crackled  —  lace- 
like 
Craped 
Twilled 


Damasked 
Patterns  of  large 

squares 
Of  luxiuy 

Indented 

Lace-work 
Two-tone 

Plaid  (Scottish) 
Crushed 

Corded 


Exquisite 

Wrought  —  fig- 
ured 
Fancy 

Scalloped 

Felted 

Flaky 
Deep-colored 


French 

Gaufre 


Glac* 


Pronundation 
go-fray 


glah-say 


Granite 
Grisaille 

gran-ee-tay 
greaze-eye 

Grivel6 

greeve-lay 

[mprime 
Unce 

ong-pree-may 
Ion -say 

Lumineux 

loo-min-eu 

Lustri 

loos-tray 

Matelasse 

mat-las-say 

Matte 

maht 

Metallique 

may-tal-leek 

Moire 

mwar-ay 

Monochrome 

mon-o-chrome 

Monotone 

Nacre 

Nacr* 

Natte 

Nouveaute 

Ombr* 

mon-o-tone 

nakr 

nah-cray 

nat-tay 

noo-vo-tay 

ong-bray 

Onde 

on-day 

Ondul* 

on-doo-lay 

Orne 

or-nay 

Ouvr* 

oo-vray 

Fillet* 

pi-yet-ay 

APPENDIX 

Description 

Patterns  produced  by 
pressure  between  en- 
graved rollers. 

Applied  to  two-tone  col- 
orings. 

Small  granular  patterns. 

A  black-and-white  mixed 
effect. 

A  spotted  or  mottled  ef- 
fect. 

Any  printed  effect. 

Applied  to  special  picks 
used  for  shot  effects. 

Showing  glints  of  color 
through  the  ground. 

Finished  with  special 
brilliancy. 

A  figured  effect,  well 
stuffed  out. 

Flat,  dull  finishes  or 
weaves. 

Applied  to  high  luster  ef- 
fects. 

Watered  effect  of  many 
kinds. 

Different  shades  of  the 
same  color. 

Single-color  effects. 

Iridescent,  pearly  effects. 

Small    basket-weaves. 

Applied  to  anything  new. 

Showing  graduations  of 
color. 

Having  a  wavy,  watered 
effect. 

Stripes  of  an  undulating 
character. 

Specially  ornate  or  deco- 
rated. 

Figured,  stitched  or  em- 
broidered. 

Showing  small,  glittering 
effects. 


223 

English 
Honeycombed  — 
puckered 

Frosted  —  ice-like 

Granite-like 
Grizzled 

Speckled 

Printed 
Shot 

Ltuninous 

Lustered 

Quilted  —  stuffed 

Lusterless  —  dead 

Metallic 

Watered 

Single-colored 

Monotonous 

Mother-of-pearl 

Nacreous 

Plaited  —  matlike 

Novelty 

Shaded 

Waved 

Undulated 

Ornamented 

Worked 

Spangled 


224 


SILK  DEPARTMENT 


French 

Pronunciation 

Description 

English 

Paillette 

pi-yet 

Spangle 

Panachi 

pan-ah-shajr 

Showing     birds,     flowers, 
fruits,  leaves,  etc. 

Variegated 

Pass« 

pas-say 

Anything  out  of  style. 

Passed  —  out      of 

fashion 

Peluch6 

pel-oo-shay 

A  rough,  plush-like  effect. 

Shaggy 

Perc* 

pair-say 

Akind  of  open-work  effect. 

Perforated 

Petits  pois 

pet-ee  pwah 

Small  dots,  as  peas. 

Small  peas 

Picot 

pee-co 

A     looped     arrangement 
for  edgings. 

Purl  —  loop 

Plissi 

plee-say 

Showing  alternate  stripes, 
smooth  and  puckered. 

Pleated 

Pointilli 

pwong-tee-yay 

Having    a     pattern     with 
small  points  or  dot*. 

Dotted 

Quadrille 

cad-ree-yay 

Patterns     of    a    squared 
kind 

Checkered 

Ray« 

ray-ay 

A  general  name  for  strip- 
in  gs. 

Striped 

ltelev6 

rel-er-ay 

Figures  showing  in  strong 
relief. 

Raised —  in    relief 

Renvers^ 

rong-ver-say 

Patterns  which   reverse. 

Reversed 

Repousse 

reh-poo-say 

Patterns  of  a  raised  char- 

Pushed-back — 

acter. 

bulked-up 

Revers 

reh-vair 

Turned  round. 

Reverse-side 

Rondi 

ron-day 

Figures     of     a     rounded 
shape. 

Rounded 

Rongeant 

rong-zhong 

As    a    pattern    made    by 
eating  out  the  design. 

Corroding 

Scintilla 

san-tee-yay 

Brilliant  and  scintillating. 

Sparkling 

Serpcntin 

sehr-pon-tan 

Undulating     striped      ef- 
fects. 

Spiral  —  winding 

Serr6 

sehr-ay 

Compactly  pressed. 

Pressed 

Soutach6 

8oo-tash-ay 

Effect     of    braidings    on 
cloth. 

Braided 

Tachet* 

tash-tay 

Having  a  speckled  effect. 

Spotted 

Teindr^ 

tain-dray 

Dyed;      stained;      tinged 
with  color. 

Dyed 

Travers 

trah-vair 

Cross-over  effects. 

Across 

Traverse 

trah-vair-say 

Crossed  by  stripes  in  the 

Traversed  — 

filling. 

crossed 

Velouti 

vel-oo-tay 

Soft,     velvety     and     free 
from  harshness. 

Velvety 

Vdu 

vel-oo 

Rough  faced  and  hairy. 

Hairy 

INDEX 


Adulteration  of  silk,  83 
Andemars,  75 
Aniline  dyes,  65 
Animal  dyes,  62 
Armure,  127 
Artificial  silk, 

characteristics,  76 

cuprammonium,  73,  74 

history,  75 

inventors,  7S 

laundering,  78 

manufacture,  74 

materials,  78 

nitrocellulose  or  pyroxylin,  73.  74 

reasons  for  making,  72 

uses,  76 

viscose,  73,  74 

B 

Batten  (See  "  Loom  ") 
Behring  seal,  147 

BeNGALINB,  80,  123 

Black  silks,  2,  59 
Blood,  Edmund.  19 
Boiling>off  process,  21 
Bolting  cloth,  128 
Bombazine,  80 

BOMBYX  MORI  silkworm,  5 

Breaking  process,  68 
"Bright"  throwing,  i6 
Broad  silks.  33 
Brocade.  128,  129 
BROCHfe,  129 
Broken  colors,  94 
Burning  tests,  84 


Cachemirb  de  soie,  129 
Calendering  process,  68 
Carding  (See  "Loom  Jacquard") 
Cartwright,  Edmund,  32 
Changeable  silk.  130 
Chardonnet.  7S 
Charmeuse.  130 
Chemical  dbgumming.  21 
Chemical  tests,  8s 
Chevreul,  Michel  Eugene,  63 
Chiffon,  2.  130 
Chiffon  taffeta,  130.  143 
China  silk.  130 
Chine  silks.  131 
Chrysalis,  6,  9,  10 
Cleaning. 

ribbons,  192 

silk,  191 

velvet,  192 
Cloth  beam  (See  "Loom") 
Cloth  of  gold,  131,  175 
Coal  tar  dyes,  65 
Cocoons,  5,  8,  10,  11,  20 

double,  20 

pierced,  10 

reelmg  silk  from,  10 

spinning,  8 
Color  wheel  diagram,  98 
Colors, 

absorption  and  reflection  of.  95 

advancing.  92 

affected  by  light,  102,  106 
artificial,  102 

affected  by  materials.  106 

broken,  94 


225 


226 


INDEX 


Colors — Continued 

cold.  92,  93 

complimentary,  96 

dress.  104 

harmonies,  100 

household  decoration,  108 

intensity,  100 

luminous  and  somber,  93 

primary,  91 

properties,  99 

rays,  9S 

retiring.  92 

scales,  100 

secondary,  92,  93 

spectrum,  90 

standard,  or  normal,  91 

tertiary,  94 

values.  99 

warm,  92,  93 
Combing  process,  33 
Conditioning  process,  is 
Corduroy,  41,  146 
Cotton,  mercerized, 

farmer's  satin,  82 

near  silk,  83,  83 

sateen,  82 

silkaline,  82 
Cotton    velvets    or    velveteens, 

147 
Creel,  33 

CRftPE,53. 131 

CrSpb  charmeusb,  13a 

CRfiPE  DB    chine,  133 
CRfiPB  meteor,  132 
CUPRAMMONIUM  SILKS,  73 


Damask,  132 

Departments     (See     "Silk    depart- 
ment,"   "Stock    classification," 
"Umbrella  department") 

Design, 
definition,  no 
kinds,  no 


Design — Continued 
pattern,  116 

borders,  117 

definition,  in 

diaper,  116 

forms  and  spaces,  116 

inhabited  forms,  117 

material,  113 

motives.  112 

planning,  113 

rules,  114 

sources,  112 

value  of  line,  115 
textile. 

classes  of  patterns,  119 

drapery  silks,  123 

dress  goods  patterns,  122 

drop  repeat  patterns,  120 

French, 125 

Italian,  125 

Jacquard  weaves.  126 

rectangular  patterns,  120 

step-repeat  patterns,  120 

turn-around  patterns,  121 

turn-over  patterns,  120 

value  of  successful  patterns,  124 

varieties.  119 
Designing  process.  122 
Diaper  patterns,  116,  133 
Diseases  of  silkworms,  8 
Double  cocoons,  20 
Doubling  and  twisting,  15,  16 
Draw  boy  mounting     (See  "Loom, 

draw") 
Draw  loom  (See  "Loom,  draw") 
Drawing  and  doubling,  spun  silk, 

20,  23 

Dresden  silks,  133 
Dressing  process,  68 
Drop-repeat  pattern,  laz 
Drying  process,  15,  16 
DupiONS,  8  (Footnote) 
Dyeing.  51 

piece.  59 

yam,  processes,  52,  58 


INDEX 


227 


Dyes, 

acid,  57 

American,  64,  66 
aniline, 

history,  65 

Perkin,  W.  H.,  65 
animal,  63 
antiquity,  62 
basic  or  substantive,  57 
Chevreul,  63 
classification,  56 
development  in  U.  S.,  66 
intermediates,  66 
mineral,  64,  65 
mordants,  57.  64 
Prussian  blue,  64 
vegetable,  62 

B 

End  warp  thread,  32 
Eolienne,  81,  133 
EpinglS,  133 
Evening  silks.  3 

F 

Faille,  133 

Faille  Francaise.  133 

Falcon,  M.,  44 

Farmer's  satin.  83 

Fiber,  5,  23 

Fiber  silk  (See  "Artificial  silk") 

Fibroin,  9 

Filament,  silk,  5,  9 

Filatures,  10,  11 

Filling,  35 

Finishing  processes 

breaking,  68 

calendering,   68 

dressing  or  stiffening,  68 

gassing,  68.  69 

moir^  finish,  68,  69 

permanency  of  finishes,  70 

shower-proofing,  70 

stiffening  agents,  68 


Finishing  processes — Continued 

tentering,  68.  69 

variety,  67 
Floss,  19 

Foulard  and  wash  silks,  3,  81,  133 
Frame,  loom,  30,  33 


Gassing,  20,  33,  68.  69 
Gauze,  53.  i33,  iSo,  iS3 
Georgette  cr^pe,  134 
Ginghams,  silk,  81 
GlacS,  134.  150 

GLACfi  TAFFETA,  143 

Gloria,  8o 
Gobelin  blue,  63 
Gobelin,  Jean,  63 
Gobelin  tapestries,  63 
Gold,  cloth  of,  131,  17S 
Grenadine,  134 
Gros  db  Londrbs,  134 
Grosgrain,  134,  150 
Gum  removal  process,  ao 


Habutai,  135 

Hand-looms.  39 

Hanway,  Jonas.  168 

Harmony  of  color,  100 

Harness  (See  "Loom") 

Heddlbs  (See  "Loom") 

Henrietta  cloth,  80 

History  of  silk, 
Chinese  silks,  171 
ctdture  in  Japan,  170 
discovery  in  China,  170 
early  culture  in  United  States.  176 
early  culture  in  Virginia,  176 
Flemish  weavers,  175 
introduction  by  Moors,  175 
introduction  by  Romans,  174 
manufacture  in  India,  173 
production  in  Europe,  I73 

Hyrobxtractor,  16 


22S 


INDEX 


India  silk,  135 
Industry,  silk,  4 
Intermediate  dyes,  66 


Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie,  45 
Jacquard  loom     (See  "Loom,  Jac- 
quard") 
Jacquard  silks,  13s,  iso 
Japanese  silk,  13S.  136.  172 
Jersey  cloth,  13s 


Kapok, 
sources,  79 
uses,  79 

KiKAi,  136 


Lansdownb,  80 
Laps  of  silk,  aa 
Laundering, 
ribbons,  19a 
silk.  191 
Leno  weave,  39 
Liberty  satin,  136 
Liberty  silks,  179 
Loom, 

Chinese,  29 
draw, 

improvements,  44 
origin,  43 
hand,  ag 
Jacqtiard. 
cards.  47,  49 
designs,  49,  ia6 
invention,  45 
mechanism,  47 
range  of  patterns.  46,  126 
varieties,  so 


Loom — Continued 
mechanism. 

battening.  34 

letting  off,  34 

picking,  34 

shedding,  34 

taking  up,  34 
mountings,  43 
origin,  28 
parts, 

cloth  beam.  30.  34 

frame,  30 

harness,  30,  31,  35 

heddles.  30,  31,  33 

reed  or  batten,  30,  31,  33 

shuttle.  30.  31.  36 

treadles,  30,  31 

warp  beam.  30,  33i  34 
power,  31 
skid,  31.  34 
Louisinb,  136 

M 

Marquisette,  136 
Mason,  Joseph.  44 
Matching  samples,  187 
effect  of, 

adjacent  colors,  189 

dyes,  189 

natural  and  artificial  light,  i87t 

x88 
surface  of  fabric,  189 
tone  of  color,  190 
MATELASsft,  136 
Mercerized  cotton   (Se«  "Cotton. 

mercerized*') 
Mbssalinb,  137 
Microscopic  tests,  8$ 
Mirror  velvet,  146 
Mixtures,  silk  and  cotton, 
cotton-back  satin.  81 
foulards,  81 
poplin,  81 
shantungs.  81 


W|g'l|g 

mm 


i 


INDEX 


229 


Mixtures,   silk  and  cotton — Con- 
tinued 

silk  ginghams,  81 

silk  muslins.  81 

upholstery  materials,  81 

velveteens.  8z 

voiles.  81 
Mixtures,  silk  and  wool, 

bengaline,  80 

bombazine,  80 

eolienne,  81 

gloria.  80 

henrietta  cloth,  80 

lansdowne,  80 

mohair,  80 

poplin,  80 
MoiRfi,  137.  ISO 

antique.  137 

finish,  69 
Mordants.  S7.  64 

MOUSSBLINE  DE  SOIK.  137 

Mulberry,  5.  7 


Near  silk,  82 
Nitrocellulose  silks.  73 
Noils,  silk.  22 
Novelty  silks,  a 


Organdie,  137 
Organzinb.  17 

Ornament  and   design   (Se*   "  De- 
sign") 
Ottoman,  137,  iso 


Parasol  department,  iS9 
Parasols  (See  also  "  Umbrellas ") 

care  of,  167 

coverings,  162 

materials,  IS9 

sices.  z63 

Tariety,  163 


Patent  for  spinning  waste  silk.  19 
Pattern     design     (See     "Design, 

pattern") 
Peau  db  cygne.  138 
Pbau  db  soib,  138 
Pekin  stripe,  138 
Perkin.  W.  H..  6s 
Picks,  warping,  32 
Piece-dyeing,  59 
Plush,  138.  146 
Pongee  silks.  2,  s.  139 
Poplin,  80,  139 
Power-looms.  31 
Primary  colors,  9a 
Printing, 

block,  60 

discharge.  6i 

machinery.  60 

methods,  61 

resist.  61 

warp.  61 
Prussian  blub.  64 
Pyroxylin  silks,  73.  74 


Raw  silk,  14.  18,  23 

Reamur.  7S 

Reed  (See  "Loom") 

Reel,  13 

Reeled  silk  books,  la 

Reeling  into  skeins.  la,  xS 

Rebling  process,  10,  la.  iS 

Rep,  139 

Retiring  colors,  9a 

Rib  weaves 

filling  rib.  36 

warp  rib,  36 
Ribbon 

cleaning,  19a 

designs,  IS3 

dyeing,  151 

finishing,  isi 

materials.  150 

printing,  151 


':% 


a 


u 


230 


INDEX 


Ribbon — Continued 
qualities,  153 
remnants,  155 
uses.  154 
varieties,  150 

weaving     (See     "Narrow        fabric 
looms"  in  Notions  Manual) 


s 


Salespboplb.  suggestions,  183 

accurate  measurement,  190 

arrangement  and  display.  181 

backgrrounds,  182 

laundering  and  care,  191 

manufacture,  186 

quality  and  values,  184 

quantity  of  material,  184 

reasons  for  cost  of  silk,  185 

values  of  different  kinds  of  silk.  186 
Sateen, 83 
Satin,  139,  150 

charmeuse,  140 

cotton-back,  140 

de  chine.  140 

de  Lyons.  140 

damask,  140 

double-faced,  14 1.  150 

duchesse.  141 

Pa^onne.  141 

merveilleux.  14X 

regence,  141 

rhadame.  141 

royal.  141 

surah,  142 

taffeta,  142 
schappe  process,  3z 
schappb  silk,  31 
schapping.  21 
Scouring.  21 

Scroop,  how  obtained,  59 
Seal.  Behring.  147 
Secondary  colors.  92 
Sbracin.  9 
Serge,  silk.  143 


Shantung,  5,  81,  142 
Shed  (See  "Loom") 
Shot  silks,  142,  150 
Shower-proofing,  70 
Shuttle  (See  "Loom") 
Silk  (See  also  under  names  of  various 
silks.  "Spun  silk") 
adulterations  of,  83 
artificial  (See  "Artificial  sUk") 
characteristics,  83 
designs  (See  "Designs") 
fiber,  11 

filament,  length  of,  9 
ginghams.  81 

imitations.        mercerized        cotton 
(See    pp.    36-38   of   manual   for 
"Cotton     and     Linen    Depart- 
ments") 
India,  135 
industry,  177 
muslins,  81 

production  centers.  177 
China.  177 
France.  177 
Great  Britain.  178 
Italy.  177 
Japan. 177 
Liberty  silks,  179 
other  countries,  178 
United  States,  179 
raw,  14.  18,  23 
reel,  12,  33 
reeling, 
primitive,  10 
process.  11 
rereels,  11 
steam  filatures,  ix 
serge.  142 

sources  and  cultivation.  4 
throwing,  processes,  15 
vegetable  (See  "Kapok") 
Tveighting  (See  "Weighting") 
wild,  13,  s6 
woven.  25 
yard  goods.  2,  137 


I  } 


INDEX 


231 


Silk  department, 
arrangement.  2 
in  various  departments,  3 
location,  i 

SiLKALINE.  82 

Silk-surfacing,  82,  150 
Silkworm, 

chrysalis,  6,  9.  10 

cultivated, 
cocoon, 5 
where  raised.  5 

description,  s 

diseases  of,  8 

eggs,  6 

food, 5 

length  of  life,  6 

molting  seasons,  7 

moth,  6,  9 

spinning  cocoon,  8 

waste,  9.  14.  19.  20 

wild, 

cocoon,  s 

where  found,  S 

varieties  of  silk  made  from,  5 
Simblot,  M.,  44 
Singles,  17 
Slivers,  22 
Soaking,  15.  16 
Sorting,  15 
Spectrum,  90 
Spun  silk,  8,  18.  23 

beating  and  opening,  20,  31 

combing,  20,  22 

gassing  or  singeing.  20,  23 

inspecting,  20,  23 

removal  of  gum.  20 

sources,  8,  19 

spinning,  20,  22,  83 
Standard  colors,  91 
Stiffening  process,  68 
Stock  classification,  194-202 
Stretching  process,  18,  s 8 
Stripping  process,  52 
Substantive  dybs  (See  "Dyes") 
Surah.  142 


Surface-printed,  iso 
Swan.  J.  W..  7S 


Tabby  weave.  35 
Taffeta, 142, 150 

chiffon,  143 

glac?,  143 
Tentering,  68,  69 
Tertiary  colors.  94 
Tests. 

burning,  84 

chemical.  85 

for  "feel,"  87 

microscopic,  85 

miscellaneous,  86 

weaving,  86 
Thread,  cocoon,  s.  9 
Throwing  process,  14-16 
Throwsters,  14 
Tram,  17.  18 
Treadles  (See  "Loom") 
Tulle,  143 
tussah,  tussur.  or  tussore  silk, 

S,  13,  56 
Twisting  and  winding  spun  silk. 
20. 23 


Umbrella  department,  x59 
Umbrellas,  (See  also  "Parasols") 
care  of,  167 
children's,  167 
folding.  161 
history,  167,  168 
materials,  159 
men's,  163 

covers,  164 

frames,  163 

sticks  and  handles,  165 
women's,  I59 

covers,  160 

frames,  159 

manufacturing,  161 

sticks  and  handles,  160 


232 


INDEX 


Unitbd  Statbs,  silk  MANUFACTUKE,  4 
Upholstery  materials.  8i 


Vancanson,  M.,  44 
Vbgbtablb  dybs.  62 
Vbgbtablb  silk  (See  "Kapok") 

VbLOUR,  143.  ISO 

Velvet,  2.  146 

Behring  seal,  147 

chiffon,  146 

cleaning.  193 

figured.  SI,  I47 

history,  id8 

industry,  149 

mirror,  146 

pann^.  ij6 

qualities,  148 

steaming.  193 

uncut.  146 

varieties.  146 

weaving,  40 
Velveteens,  81.  146 
Viscose  silks,  73,  74 
Voile,  81. 144 

W 

Warp,  as 

Warp  beam  (See  "Loom") 

Warping.  3a 

Warping  frame,  33 

Wash  silks,  a 

Waste  silk  (See  "Silkworm  wast*") 

Watbr-proofing,  70 


Weaves, 

double-cloth.  35,  39,  40 

gauze  or  leno.  35,  39 

pattern,  35.  43 

pile.  35.  40 

plain.  35 

rib,  35.  36 

satin.  35.  37 

twill.  3S,  37 
Weaving,  (See  also  "Loom") 

antiquity.  26,  29 

corduroy.  41 

pattern. 

draw  loom.  43 
process.  42 

simplest,  25,  a7 

tests,  86 

warp  and  weft.  26 
Weft.  2s 
Weighting. 

materials,  S5 

results,  55 

with  metallic  salts.  S5,  83 
White  silks.  2 
Width  of  silk.  3a 
Wild  silk,  13,  56 
Winding,  is,  16 
Wood    and    cane    for    umbrella 

sticks  and  handles,  iss 
Woof,  as 
Woven  silk.  25 


Yarn  dyeing,  52,  58 


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